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SMITHSONIAN
MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
“EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES,
AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN ’’—SMITHSON
(PUBLICATION 3332)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
1935
The Lord Baltimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. Ae
ADVERTISEMENT
The present series, entitled “ Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions,” is intended to embrace all the octavo publications of the
Institution, except the Annual Report. Its scope is not limited,
and the volumes thus far issued relate to nearly every branch of
science. Among these various subjects zoology, bibliography, geology,
mineralogy, anthropology, and astrophysics have predominated.
The Institution also publishes a quarto series entitled “ Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.” It consists of memoirs based
on extended original investigations, which have resulted in important
additions to knowledge.
C. G. ABBOT,
Secretary of the Snuthsonian Institution.
(111)
vec) Pelt oeheue
is
JT Wee
is e
le
-,
ho
N
CONTENTS
Hroiicka, Ares. The hypotrochanteric fossa of the femur.
49 pp, 64 pls: Aug. 4, 1934. (Publ. 3250.)
Moztey, ALAN. New fresh-water mollusks from northern Asia.
Zippel ple eis: oO. TO34.. (Publ 3253.)
Merer, Frorence E. Lethal response of the alga Chlorella
vulgaris to ultraviolet rays. 12 pp., 3 pls., Aug. 6, 1934.
( Puble) 3254.)
Harrincton, Joun P. A new original version of Boscana’s
historical account of the San Juan Capistrano Indians of
southern Calitornia. 62) pp. 2 pls. June 27, 1934. (Publ.
3255:)
Meter, Florence E. Colonial formation of unicellular algae
under various light conditions. 14° pp., 3 pls., Oct. 8, 1934.
(Publ. 3256.)
MereR, FLoRENCE E. Effects of intensities and wave lengths of
light on unicellular green algae. 27 pp., 3 pls., Oct. 11, 1934.
(Publ. 3257.)
CocHRAN, Doris M. Herpetological collections from the West
Indies made by Dr. Paul Bartsch under the Walter Rathbone
Bacon Scholarship, 1928-30. 48 pp., Oct. 15, 1934. (Publ.
3259. )
Assot, C.G. Samuel Pierpont Langley. 57 pp., 6 pls., Aug. 22,
1934. (Publ. 3281.)
Cocuran, Doris M, The skeletal musculature of the blue crab,
Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. 76 pp., Jan. 22, 1935. (Publ.
3282.)
RESSER, CHARLES ELMER. Recent discoveries of Cambrian beds
in the northwestern United States. 10 pp., Nov. 6, 1934.
(Publ. 3284.)
Jounston, Eart S. Phototropic sensitivity in relation to wave
lensth) 917 pp) 2 pls.,.4hgs,, Deco, 1934—, (Publ, 3285))
Assot, C. G. Remarkable lightning photographs. 3 pp., 1 pl.,
Nov. 2, 1934. (Publ. 3287.)
Assot, C. G. and Atpricu, L. B. The standard scale of radiation.
2 pp, Nov..2) 1934. 1( Publ. 3288.)
Stronc, Witt1AmM Duncan. Archeological investigations in the
Bay Islands, Spanish Honduras. 176 pp., 33 pls., 38 figs.,
Rebs 2.1935. “( Publ. 3200: )
(v)
C a a i ;
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 1
THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC: FOSSA
OF THE FEMUR
(WirTH 14 PLates)
BY
ALES HRDLIGKA
Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology,
U.S. National Museum
(PUBLICATION 3250)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 4, 1934
Tbe Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
i
at Cae
THE, HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA OF THE FEMUR
By ALES HRDLICKA
Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National Museum
(WitH 14 PLatEs)
CONTENTS
PAGE
tt errdataaOnnthestOSSdee ois ances oracles cic reretaicerac rece crseane fares otainians site hers I
Summary of observations from the literature..............--.-..+-...--- 13
iNew DSerVaAtlOns On themlOSSar a crevcrs ie misisieteisicio a cyelscieicterstorsy sicieretniel a eetel reveals 160
PIE Foc ce ATMA ONIIUITS 3 ere ca Wie saree dahsscgelraics = “ote rays|el sofa: anenoys folayate tans yavera a9. sie ouniars 17
APS GOS sim INE WWiGelkel sino Godegoooasscousaagap paoteossocsaca souls 17
ahearosca ine Olde vWioridmemonkceys vere cer mals ote eitees aoe istsl acer 18
Pie tOSsa UM eATIELOPOIG APES =. cocussoyey ce ae Shae ccna wre ore ay ayc cher eee! ora) wha ale\ als foxes 19
Summary OL Observations on, anthropoidy apes «pce cases cers wal ss 22
MM emrOSSarmimMmeatel Vantin Atlee verierc te sarc crate minal eu -veicietnore erercistardet ae cere steyaserst ayes 23
lihemossauin laters andemoGdernumant asc icseeiecia tlaaie olctanericio til cieae 23
Mhe xossa before and about time or bitth..4:2. 20s. aes ce se aes eee © 24
The fossa in children, adolescents, and subadults..................... 26
USS RWW les ergs erensiere ore noses ceever ctu cee cle rea haten aul UN rar alate totaly aN 2
USS SINE CROSS HI ree sate ole corsichoetiacer actrees ie ensuere aa oT anero eriareuene meron sere tsalS 27
NOM Dynasty ey ptiaiiss s,s aes cio hore npcisslat sic cheng, se Seeley S Tels. etalon 28
Re lIIS TOI Chee CL UVa Siels sce ceoncl bes tone = craic oe epevesar nee MoS nthe total cieece 28
INorthaeNmenicatlalndiansiweccaaceec icc Oe eee onl 2
SUM ES SALTON ie, PAS rai adel cents dre) ata tes be ciate Gieectere ciletetav ele yels eye ditiaee apsieus te 30
Sexpandnsid euinee vent eabOones wn sank eer eee se eee eine: 2
Be mrOsSapitwal clu ltsiye er yet cea wai wn aua reledco Pa earant uni aeceMie au tou, WG ey Matai 32
MINES TOSSA AN Capa tyme ray: aap cen scape y crane cueyeeh ene aca ae vas eeye cata en ate 35
NC OLESCEILSE COMpPaLedmawatheadmltSeee cere ere erro cies 36
Ditkerencesmm, adultseinmthestwOrsexesun) jee cence aoe rcie cia cielsie 40
Ditterencesmineadults)astto: siden ease ee eee eee ee eee Le eee 4I
He CLOSSAMIN AEE ap OUt, satrvehya ee stekeyay ae becakee lereeyatilapalenke bac ee oustamiveus Mimnteiare 43
SIZE BO Pa ted HOSS Ay peta! TdepriN Sneak atom eh Ste Meee ee creatures Kota aR Ge 44
fem histonyaoti the iOssdsee yan We emia oui wane cds omnes ie eae 45
eilientossav in lowersimaminals +(e aeirasenbanl nto te teas ee alte aes ora ea 45
SSRIS itoes hoy aerial eaten are armen E pte OL tee acaba MRR a pa cya ge dy 46
EARLIER DATA ON THE FOSSA
Under the name of “ la fosse hypotrochantérienne ”’, Emile Houzé *
in 1883 described a hollow located in the superior posterior and ex-
*Houzé, E., Sur la présence du troisiéme trochanter chez homme. Bull. Soc.
Anthrop. Bruxelles, vol. 2, pp. 21-52, 1883-84.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. i
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
ternal part of the femoral diaphysis and running parallel to the long
axis of the same. The borders of this hollow, as well as the rough
surface of its floor, served, he thought, for the attachment of the
terminal fibers of the great gluteal muscle.* The fossa, he said further,
may exist alone or be associated with a third trochanter. He found
it to be “a constant character ”’ of the femora of the upper paleolithic
of Furfooz, Belgium, and frequent in those of similar age of France ;
but it was less frequent in the neolithic age, and “ positively rare in
pronounced form in modern man.” * The data of Houzé (imperfectly
summed up later by Pearson and Bell*), were as follows:
With
Femora hypotrochanteric
examined fossa
(341) Percent
ai lveamaanice iMtelOOz sa: screen ceases 20 100.-
Grenelen ceria 2 sey etree 21 57--
Cro-Macnonm Uy.senn eee 2 (100)
Madeleine fe. c sees aes eee I (100)
Neolithic of Belgium and France....... TIO 44.-
NFER OVINE TAM ric)er5,- <a Saracicias ole, eho ars aeters 30 23.-
MiodernreBruxelles casscteneneci- cise: 67 10.5
Modern, Bruxelles: 10 male ........... TON CO) Tae aA
TO) temaleo sn sewrsert TOs. | ym mecha?
Canary elislanders sas.scsee oe seate nea 16 IS27,
NGiatic simiscellaneous: ...se ae coeacee II (78 .-)
ENKI CATIS NIE L150; meee joetacin cere cision seiner 18 6.-
Souths American) Indianee...ac--s: oaks Be a it cia ae cee rets
@ceanians and Australian... ...6020ce ne 5 (20.-)
From this evidence Houzé concluded that the fossa was materially
more frequent in earlier man and diminished in frequency of occur-
rence toward the present; and he was further of the opinion that
“the fossa enlarged considerably the transverse diameter of the
diaphysis, and that the enlargement was realized at the expense of
the antero-posterior diameter ’—in other words, that it increased the
*“Une cavité creusée dans le sens de l’axe diaphysaire et située a la partie
supérieure, postérieure et externe de la diaphyse, ... .”
*““Les bords de la fosse hypotrochantérienne servent, ainsi que la surface
rugueuse de son fond, aux fibres terminales du grand fessier.” (P. 41.)
*“TLa fosse hypotrochantérienne est un caractére constant de tous les fémurs
de lage du Rene en Belgique; ce caractére relie les Troglodytes de Furfooz aux
homme de Grenelle, qui leur sont déja apparentés par le crane, la taille et la
perforation olécranienne. ....
“La fosse hypotrochantérienne tres accusée, mais moins fréquente a l’age de
la pierre polie, devient positivement rare a l’époque moderne.” (P. 43.)
* Pearson, K., and Bell, J., A study of the long bones of the English skeleton.
Part 1, The femur. Drapers’ Co. Research Mem., biometric ser., vol. 10, p. 68.
London, I919.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 3
flattening, or, as it was called later, the platymery, of the proximal por-
tion of the shaft.
In 1886 Von Torok, in a study devoted more especially to the third
trochanter, reported that he had found a hypotrochanteric fossa
in 23 of 76 (30.2 percent) male femora of Hungary ranging from
bronze-age to recent, but in only 2 of 32 (6.2 percent) female bones
of the same derivation. He regarded the fossa as one of the three
structural variants—the other two being the gluteal ridge and the
third trochanter—serving for the attachment of the gluteus maximus ;
and he believed it would show, as did the third trochanter, con-
siderable differences in different human groups.
In 1889‘ Testut reports the presence of the hypotrochanteric fossa
in the Chancelade femur and recalls that the fossa existed also in
one of the Cro-Magnon femora and in one of Madeleine. There is
no discussion, but the following quotation shows that in Testut’s
opinion the fossa in the Chancelade femur served for the insertion
of a powerful gluteus maximus: “ véritable fosse hypotrochantérienne
(Houzé) dont le fond, hérissé de rugosités, donnait insertion aun
grand fessier certainement plus développé que dans nos races
modernes.”
In 1890 the hypotrochanteric fossa received further consideration
by the Italian author Costa.” He regarded the fossa together with
the third trochanter and the gluteal ridge, as abnormalities of regres-
sive or atavistic nature, as signs of inferiority,’ and as features that
might throw light on human phylogeny.
®“ Das sind nun die drei Ansatzformen des grossen Gesassmuskels.” Anat.
Anz. Centralbl., Jahrg. 1, no. 6, p. 177, Aug. 15, 1886.
™Testut, L., Recherches anthropologiques sur le squelette quaternaire de
Chancelade (Dordogne). Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Lyon, vol. 8, pp. 202-203, 1889.
° Costa, Pietro, Il terzo trocantere, la fossa ipotrocanterica, la cresta ipotro-
canterica nel femore dell’Uomo. Arch. Antrop. Etnol., Firenze, vol. 20, pp.
269-304. 1890.
*“ Rvidentemente dunque il terzo trocantere e con lui la fossa ipotrocanterica
e la cresta, sono caratteri di inferiorita, e il trovarli nel femore dell’uomo
moderno non é altro che un indizio di regresso, di ritorno all’ antico.” (P. 297.)
“ Questi i resultati, che c’indicano come assuma il terzo trocantere nei crimi-
nali talora proporzioni esagerate: e questo fatto mi sembra sia sempre piu
in appoggio sul considerare il terzo trocantere e naturalmente con lui la fossa
e la cresta che spesso vi s’associano, come segni di regresso, di inferiorita, come
signi di atavismo.” (P. 200.)
“Dunque il terzo trocantere, la fossa ipotrocanterica e la cresta sottotro-
canterica sono disposizioni anormali del femore, e desse perciO come tutte le dis-
posizioni anormali che appaiono sporadicamente come ricordi del passato, sono
(dice Duchenne) altrettanti materiali che possono essere utilizzati per servire a
stabilire le origini antiche del gruppo umano.” (P. 300.)
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Costa’s observations on the frequency of the fossa were as follows:
With
Femora hypotrochanteric
examined fossa Percent
FIO PEAT SM aoe eto era crete esi eeedeTcistoceels 102 30 20:4
CNG TAEICS Meee een eee ane ere ehers 6 4 66.7
PANG CANIS ia Me prresiatiovay oncratas es s/eichese sah Suen 12 6 50.0
IAGAStAlicaMS wie yeerre reer osveisre sel rele es
Americans (probably Indians).... 14 Il 78.6
Bitte ianisie a crscts srie ore siaiter stare sens tots 37 37 100.-
10
A year after (1891) Bertaux,” in his thesis on the humerus and
the femur, gives also attention to the hypotrochanteric fossa. By
this name, he says (p. 159), is designated “an elliptic hollow that
occasionally appears on the human femur and is located on the superior
posterior and external part of the diaphysis. This fossa gives inser-
tion) to the gluteus maximus: ...\. The frequency et this skeletal
feature is very variable ”’." He finds it once only in 47 “ determined ”
French femora; in 38 percent of the Guanches; in the same propor-
tion in the Orrouy femora; in 3 out of 34 (88 percent) femora
of divers Negroes; twice in four Californians; and in 23 percent
of the anthropoids examined. Bertaux is the first to observe the
fossa in the anthropoid apes. He suggests that it may present racial
differences, but his data on the anthropoid as well as on the human
material, owing to lack of clearness as to just what the proportions
apply to (femora or skeletons), are unsatisfactory.
The same year (1891) Hyades and Deniker ~ report having found
the fossa, alone or in association with a third trochanter, in 13 out
of 29 Fuegian femora (44.8 percent). In general, the fossa was less
marked than the tuberosity. They illustrate both the fossa and the
third trochanter on the femur of a Fuegian girl of eight. They do not
discuss the meaning of the fossa.
Manouvrier ~ and Ludewig, in their studies on the femur, both
touched more or less on the subtrochanteric fossa but added no
© Bertaux, A., L’humérus et le fémur considérés dans les espéces, dans les
races humaines, selon le sexe et selon l’age, Paris, Lille, 18or1.
11“ Sous le nom de fosse hypotrochantérienne, on désigne une fossette elliptique
qui se présente exceptionellement sur le fémur de l'homme et siege a la partie
supérieure, postérieure et externe de la diaphyse. Cette fosse donne insertion au
muscle grand fessier.....
“Ta fréquence de ce caractére squelettique est trés variable.’ (P. 150.)
” Hyades, P., and Deniker, J., Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, 1882-1883,
vol. 7. Anthropologie, Ethnographie, Paris, 1891.
73 Manouvrier, L., La platymérie. toth Sess. Cong. Intern. Anthrop. and
Archéol, préhist., [1889] pp. 363-81, 1891; Etude sur les variations morpho-
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 5
original data. Ludewig,”* who failed to find it on the femora of his own
preparations, uses the term ‘ subtrochanteric ’’ for hypotrochaniteric,
which for the sake of euphony would seem preferable.
In 1893 Rudolf Martin” reported the presence of the hypotro-
chanteric fossa in all his five Alakalauf (Fuegian) femora and ex-
presses, doubtless after Houzé, the opinion that the hollow stands
in a causative relation to the lateral protrusion and the flattening of
the upper part of the shaft.
In 1894 appeared a noteworthy study of the femur by Evangeli-
Tramond.” He reported finding the hypotrochanteric fossa “in nearly
all the neolithic femora of the Crois des Cosaques, Nanteuil-le-Harduin
and Copierres-sur-Ept ”. He was the first to report the feature accord-
ing to its grades. In 120 modern French bones of known sex it was
represented thus:
60 male 60 female
femora, femora,
percent percent
IRioksale Wear jenn Gougoueoo sce @)ess3 (Ge) een
Faitlvap laine (6) 10.— (CG mate
ELA CGA INe eee bose uo lnc (21) 35.- (Guw)y 2308)
AUT oor ee rar iaesre encior sisho eueevarsions (29) 48.3 (22) 36.7
Evangeli-Tramond was also the first to observe that the fossa “is
better defined in femora, the epiphyses of which are formed but not
yet attached, than in those of adults”. This statement was quoted in
subsequent editions of Testut’s “ Traité d’Anatomie ” and was noticed
also by Klaatsch (q. v.), but undeservedly has received no further
attention. The original observation on this point reads thus (pp.
55-560):
To the present we have noted the existence of the hypotrochanteric fossa in
only the femora of the adults. However, since our examination of the pre-
historic femora we have been struck by the fact that the fossa appeared more
or less clearly according to the age of the subjects. Sufficiently well marked
and relatively frequent on young femora with their epiphyses still cartilaginous,
it became the more accentuated the nearer the bones approached the age of
adolescence, when the epiphyses were already formed but not yet attached, while
it became scarcer and above all less well defined in aged femora.
This evolution appeared interesting to me and I wished to compare it with
that of modern femora. Having at my disposition a large number of skeletons
logiques du corps du fémur dans l’espéce humaine. Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris,
vol. 4, pp. III-114, 1893.
*Ludewig, W., Monographie des menschlichen Oberschenkelbeins. Inaug.-
Diss., pp. 17, 18. Berlin, 1893.
* Martin, R., Zur physischen Anthropologie der Feuerlander. Arch. Anthrop.,
vol. 22, p. 195, 1804.
* Evangeli-Tramond, A., Quelques particularités sur le fémur. Paris, 1804.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
of all ages, I divided them into three groups, considering in the first the skeletons
of fetuses, in the second infants, in the third adolescents. | encountered it [the
fossa] only exceptionally in the first two groups, while in the third group, com-
prising 18 femurs with epiphyses not attached, but well formed, I found it 12
times perfectly clear, deep, well defined, and 4 times less well marked. In two
femora there were only traces of the fossa. I cannot state here the percentages,
as the number of femora examined is too small, but this frequency is very sig-
nificant and permits the consideration of this fossa as best developed about the
ages of 18 to 20 years.
Evangeli-Tramond made further interesting original observations
on the fossa, which also remained unknown to, or have been forgotten
by, subsequent authors. He described its different forms at differ-
ent ages. A mere finely grained although quite distinct impression in
infancy, it deepens and assumes elliptical form as age advances. In
adolescence, when fully developed, it may reach 4 to 5 centimeters
in length, I centimeter in breadth, and several millimeters. in depth.
Later on, after the epiphyses have become attached, in some of the
femora he saw developed within the fossa bony tubercles, which
eventually would occupy the internal half of the depression ; but some-
times the fossa disappeared entirely as a result of invasion by these
rugosities.
Curious as to how the fossa was formed, Evangeli-Tramond dis-
sected six subjects. In three of these (the remainder were without
the fossa) he was able to ascertain that the gluteus maximus inserted
only in the gluteal ridge, and that the external border of the fossa
with the adjoining smooth part of the bone gave insertion to fleshy
fibers of the vastus externus—the fossa being found between the
two. Where the gluteus is not voluminous the fossa remains well
defined ; when the gluteus is large, however, its insertion will encroach
on the fossa and may even invade this entirely, so that between the
tendon of this muscle and the fibers of the vastus there will no longer
be any space or any depression.”
7“ Comment se forme cette fossette? J’ai disséqué six sujets afin de voir
quels rapports avaient entre elles les parties charnues et les surfaces osseuses.
Trois de ces sujets ne m’ont rien révélé, car aucun d’eux ne présentait trace de
gouttiére. Sur les trois autres cependant j’ai constaté que sur la ligne des
rugosités, et seulement sur elle, s’insérait le gros tendon du muscle grand fessier,
que sur la, partie moyenne lisse, et la lévre qui constitue le bord externe de la
fosse, s’inséraient des fibres charnues allant au vaste externe.
““C’est entre ces deux chefs d’insertion tendineux et charnus que se trouve la
fossette hypotrochantérienne. Si le tendon du muscle grand fessier est peu volu-
mineux, et si la levre externe est trés saillante, la dépression restera tres
nette. Si le muscle grand fessier est surmené, son insertion empiétera sur le
territoire de la fossette et pourra meme l’envahir tout entier, si bien qu’entre
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 7
This led Evangeli-Tramond to the conclusion that the fossa was
probably due to an excess of muscular activity at that locality.
This talented worker also gave attention to the possible connection
of the fossa with platymery and arrived at the conclusion that even
if the two characters “are in no way dependent, at least the more
or less accentuated platymery permits the hypotrochanteric fossa to
become developed proportionately ”’
In 1895 Lehmann-Nitsche, in his well-known work on the long
bones from the row-graves of Bavaria,” although not occupying him-
self especially with the fossa, found it in frequent (80 to 88.2 percent )
association with the subtrochanteric lip and was inclined to regard
it as standing in a causative relation to the lateral protrusion and
the flattening of the subtrochanteric region. Of 62 femora of his
Swabians and Alemans the fossa was present in 23 (37.1 percent).
In accordance with the views of previous authors he regarded the
fossa, the third trochanter, and the gluteal ridge as merely “ die
einzelnen Formen des Insertionsstelle”’ of the gluteus maximus
(p. 41).
Another study on the human and also the anthropoid femur, in
which the hypotrochanteric fossa is considered, was published in 1899
by Bumiuller.” Of 407 modern and presumably German femora, he
found the fossa alone or in combination with the gluteal ridge or third
trochanter, in 200, or 49.1 percent.
Bumuller, however, no longer regarded the fossa as merely one of
the bony variants formed by or for the insertion of the gluteus
maximus; it “ was unjustly attributed hitherto to the gluteus” (p.
54). The action of this muscle is not conducive to the formation of
such a hollow. It cannot be assumed that the same muscle, on the
same bone, would possess two such wholly different forms of bony
formation for its insertion as the ridge and the fossa. With such
an assumption, moreover, it would be hard to understand why the
les fibres charnues du vaste externe et le tendon du grand fessier il n’y aura
plus d’intervalle, partant plus de fossette.” (Pp. 57, 58.)
I may state, in this connection, that as Evangeli-Tramond’s thesis was not
found in libraries in Washington, it did not become accessible to me until after
the present work and even the manuscript were completed; so that all the
results to be found in this memoir were arrived at independently.
** Lehmann-Nitsche, R., Beitrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Bajuvaren:
III. Untersuchungen tiber die langen Knochen der stidbayerischen Reihengraber-
bevolkerung. Beitr. Anthrop. Urgesch. Bayerns, Miinchen, vol. 11, nos. 3 and 4,
1894-95.
* Bumiiller, J., Das menschliche Femur nebst Beitragen zur Kenntnis der
Affenfemora. Munich (Inaug.-Diss.), 1800.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
fossa is always located laterally to, or at most underneath, the gluteal
ridge, but never mesially or superiorly.
Bumiiller attributed the fossa to the insertion of the vastus lateralis ;
and he held, as did Houzé, that there was a direct connection between
the fossa and platymery.”
An especially interesting study on the femur in which the hypo-
trochanteric fossa receives attention appeared in 1900 in Paul-Bon-
*°Tt will be useful, I think, to cite his exact words in these connections.
“Tch habe schon oben gezeigt, dass crista und fossa vielfach mit Platymerie
zusammenhangen, indem bei letzterer die laterale Flache verkleinert wird.
Dieselbe Bedeutung wie diese Verkleinerung hat eine relativ sehr machtige
Muskelentwickelung. In beiden Fallen muss die zu geringe Ansatzflache ver-
grossert werden. Dies geschieht durch fossa und crista, besonders ausgiebig
durch eine Kombination von fossa und crista..... Hiedurch kann fast eine
doppelte Vergrésserung der lateralen Flache eintreten. Dabei ist aber meines
Erachtens nicht nur der M. glutaeus maximum, sondern auch der M. vastus
lateralis beteiligt und zwar in folgender Weise. Der Glutaeus zieht so zu sagen
die crista aus der Diaphyse heraus und kann so eine machtige Ansatzstelle
erzielen. Der M. vastus lateralis macht sich entweder die durch den Glutaeus
geschaffene Vergrosserung zu Nutzen, er partizipiert an der crista oder er ruft
neben der crista eine rauhe, mit Hockerchen besetzte, gewohnlich teilweise
etwas vertiefte Ansatzstelle hervor oder er grabt sich endlich neben der crista
in die Diaphyse ein (fossa). Diese fossa wurde wohl mit Unrecht bisher auf
den Glutaeus bezogen. Allein es ist doch nicht anzunehmen, dass eine und
derselbe Muskel an demselben femur und an derselben Stelle zwei ganz ver-
schiedene Ansatzweisen besitzt. Es ware bei dieser Annahme auch schwer
verstandlich, warum die fossa immer auf der lateralen Seite der crista oder
héchstens unterhalb der crista sich befindet, niemals aber auf der medialen Seite.
Dieses Verhalten entspricht dagegen ganz der Thatsache, dass der Vastus
lateralis ausserhalb des Glutaeus inseriert. Manchmal ist die fossa unterhalb
der-crista und diese selbst nimmt nach oben hin zu. Warum ist, wenn beide
Erscheinungen dem Glutaeus ihren Ursprung verdanken, die Aufeinanderfolge
nie umgekehrt, die fossa oben und die crista unten? Bei Berticksichtigung des
vastus lateralis erklart sich dieses Verhalten. Infolge grossen Raummangels
(oder individueller Variation?) riicken die Ansatzstellen der Muskeln, die
neben einander keinen Platz haben, in eine Linie. Der Glutaeus wird seiner
Zugrichtung entsprechend etwas nach oben gertickt, der Vastus lateralis, der in
entgegengesetzter Weise zur Kniescheibe verlauft, eben dieser Zugrichtung
entsprechend nach unten. Deshalb kann niemals die fossa oben, die crista unten
sein. Endlich erscheint es geradezu unmoglich, dass der Glutaeus eine fossa
hervorbringt. Seine Hauptwirkung auf das femur besteht darin, dass er das
gebeugte Bein in die senkrechte Stellung zuriickzubringen hat. Dabei hat er
die Tendenz, die Diaphyse nach hinten herauszuziehen. Die fossa aber ware
eine dieser Tendenz gerade entgegengesetzter Effekt und deshalb unerklarlich.”
(Paca3)
NOT aL THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA g
cour’s “ Skeletal Modifications Following Hemiplegia”’.* The fossa
is more frequent on the affected side, and when bilateral, is both
larger and deeper in the affected bone (p. 50). The fossa stands
in close relation to the different forms of platymery. Its greater
frequency and development on the diseased side are due to lesser
development of the crural muscle and to structural differences in
the affected bone. “It is consequently possible to suppose that at
a given time a subject may possess a fossa, that is to say a free
space between the gluteal ridge and the external border of the surface
of insertion of the [crural] muscle; and that through the enlarge-
ment of the latter, caused by conditions of life or activity, this surface
[the fossa] diminishes or disappears” (p. 51). And further (p. 57) :
“The significance of the hypotrochanteric fossa varies according
to the form of platymery which it accompanies. In certain cases it
denotes accentuated platymery, while in others it is in relation to
a smaller muscular development. Its diminution and its disappearance
in certain femora would indicate, therefore, a proportionate increase
in muscular activity.” ~
Shortly afterward (1900-1), Klaatsch published a valuable paper
on “The Most Important Variations of the Skeletal Parts of the
Lower Limbs”,” in which he also deals briefly with the hypotro-
chanteric fossa (pp. 633-635). There are no new statistical data
and no original study of the fossa, but the author has observed the
hollow, well developed, in the femora of Neanderthal and Spy, which
(together with Boncour’s and Evangeli-Tramond’s observations)
“opens the possibility of conceiving the feature as an old character
which ontogenetically or, better, during the growth period of recent
man, can still transitionally make its appearance’”’. And Klaatsch is
further of the opinion that the location of the fossa in the Neanderthal
and Spy femora is such that a genetic connection of the same with
*tPaul-Boncour, G., Etude des modifications squelettiques consécutives a
Vhémiplégie. I. Le Fémur. Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, ser. 5, vol. 1, 1900.
“Ta signification de la fossette hypotrochantérienne varie suivant la forme
de platymérie qu’elle accompagne. Dans certains cas elle dénote une platymérie
accentuée, dans d’autres au contraire elle est en relation avec un moindre dé-
veloppement musculaire. Sa diminution et sa disparition sur certains fémurs
indiqueraient donc un accroissement proportionnel de 1’activité musculaire.”
GP.157.)
** Klaatsch, H., Die wichtigsten Variationen am Skelet der freien unteren
Extremitat. Ergebnisse Anat. u. Entwickelungsgeschichte, vol. 10, pp. 599-719,
19Q00-T.
,
|
|
~
oO SMEPMSONTAN MISCELLANKOUS COLLECTIONS VOL, O2-
the subtrochanteric lateral expansion of the shaft cannot be mis-
taken (py. O38),
For nearly 20 years after the appearance of Klaatsch’s paper the
subject of the subtrochanteric fossa received no new contributions of
importance; but in Lore appeared the extensive work of Pearson
and Bell on the long bones of the English skeleton,” and this presents
for the first time some ample statistics on the fossa, tagether with
considerable new light on its associations,
Pearson and Rell thought they had seen a wellemarked hypotro=
chanteric fossa in a Dasypusy they had not recognized it in: the
gorillas they examined, but * had noticed indications of it in the gib-
bon, the orang, and the chimpangee * Cp. 166), Tn human femora they
found the following conditions:
Maedern Londoners CX 24)
Mate Pemate
Right Lett Right Let
FOOTE ccc ccncaccccan (ag) (a) (ye) (pr)
Wemora with fossac (8) (ae) (&) (ss)
Poreent with fossa. ahs #2 ane 0.6
Seer eee (ty AQ female... (940)
Gk) wn
20.08 Bo
A femmeta cicccsccccaas (Ore)
(aps)
SS.O8
Niegrada (predyaantic) Eewatteas (a ps)
Mats Pemate
OGIO KAS vy cas aartnnavusva. CRMOD (aaa)
Pemrora with faa occas Cute) (ren)
Prepownt witht faa nccccccan aho a0
Rwere Lak
Paired bones, Doth sexes (a BO) as QQ) ie
(@) (&)
RY ane
On page & the values on the Naquada bones appear in a some
What different form, ‘The authors, ke Evangeli-Tramond, have
enddavared to record the fossa according to its grades, I) representing
* Wraweson, Ky aunt Bell, J. A starty of the Rong Danes of the Baatih deteton,
Part 1, The Reman, Dirapers’ Qa, Research Mom, Noereteic ser. wel ra, Londen.
Wie
.
|
NO, I THE HYPOTROCTHLAN TERTC POSSA—-HRDLICKA Ul
the “ well marked; Il, “distinctly present in definite form”; and
IIT, “ some trace, slight trough or fossa”. The data follow:
Hypotrochanieric Fossa in the Naquada Femora
Grade
Kemora
“Dh ee: m | mn
Definite male (B88)... .. (v3) | (36) | (63) | Percent
| $3.85 9,28 16,24 28.87
Definite female (422). 0.0... } (tn) (24) | (66)
| 2.6% 5.69 | 15.64 23.03
Sex doubtful (985). 00... . | (18) (32) (67)
4.08 S.gi | 17.40 $0.39
OUR EOC Cy SSN hy eee Gan (42) | (2) | (106)
3.5t | 7.70 | 316.40 | 27,02
Pearson and Bell gave also a résumé of the available information
on the presence of the fossa in early man (p. 453) :
The fossa Aypotrochanterica is well marked in Neanderthal R., and is quite
definite in Neanderthal L. and in Spy [and Spy TH. According to Boule it ts
not found in the La Chapelle-aux-Saints femur, but appears in La Ferrassie l.
La Ferrassie Il is defective at this point, Galley Hill has a slight hypotro-
chanteric fossa on the mesial side of the ridge preceding the third trochanter,
The fossa also appears in all Verneau’s femora whether of Cromagnon or
Negroid Type. Homo mousieriensis CHauseri) ts defective at this point. We
may conclude that the fesse Aypotrechkanterica is usual in all types of Primo-
genial Man,
.
Pearson and Bell recognized that the three “ anomalies", ie, the
fossa, the third trochanter, and the gluteal ridge, “can exist inde-
pendently ", or that “we may have in the same individual a fossa
hypotrochanierica surmounted by a crista trochanierica [gluteal ridge]
which concludes with a well-marked trochanter tertius” (p. 06).
There is “ no significant association between the presence of the fossa
and the third trochanter” (p. 75). The fossa “is markedly less
prevalent in the female than in the male bones”, and in both sexes
“the left bone presents the anomaly more frequently than the right”
(Pp. 74).
There “is a small but just sensible correlation between platymery
and the presence of the fossa” (p. 70).
No attempt was made at an explanation of the ontogenesis of
the fossa, and there is nothing on its age differences, As to its sig-
nificance the authors express themselves thus (p. 503):
Such a character as the hypotrochanteric fossa in Recent Man exhibits all
the signs of a disappearing phenomenon becoming less and less frequent: since
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
palaeolithic times. It is more reasonable to suppose it as a vestige of what was
once a generic character—even as the lateral protrusion of the anterior face
in modern man is a vestige of a lemuroid generic character—than to suggest
its independent development in two or even more simio-human lines proceeding
from a gibbon-like origin.
As to the relation of the fossa, and the third trochanter, with the
gluteus muscle, Pearson and Bell speak as follows (p. 68) :
It is hard to understand how, if they were due to the development of the
gluteus maximus in man, they should remain anomalous in his case, and the
rule in numerous lower types, while their frequent appearance in infants, in
women, and in bones of small muscular development at least precludes the
theory that their appearance is solely due to use development.
Since Pearson and Bell’s contribution to the subject there has ap-
peared but one noteworthy study of the fossa, that of A. B. Appleton,
“On the Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Accessory Adductor Groove
of the Primate Femur ”’.”
Basing his findings on dissections made by himself, Appleton points
out the presence of certain fossae in primate femora that cannot be
identified with the fossa hypotrochanterica of man, since they are
of a totally different nature. In particular, he says, “a fossa is
present on the femur of the gorilla, chimpanzee and orang-outan,
named in this paper the ‘ accessory adductor groove’, which super-
ficially resembles the fossa hypotrochanterica of man. The homologue
of the latter, however, is found in these apes in another situation,
viz. on the outer aspect of the shaft well below the level of the lesser
trochanter.” In addition he has noted another hollow, located near
the middle of the posterior surface of the subtrochanteric region of
the shaft, which he calls the “ pectineal groove”. Pearson and Bell,
he points out, have confused the hypotrochanteric fossa and the
accessory adductor groove in the chimpanzee and orang (footnote 2
on p. 66 of their memoir).
Appleton assumes that “ the identity of the fossa hypotrochanterica
is defined for us by Houzé as the site of insertion of M. gluteus
maximus and in this sense later writers have dealt with it (Von
Torok, Costa and Pearson) ”’, and adds the following in this con-
nection (pp. 296-297) :
ATTACHMENT OF M. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS TO FEMUR
Man: gluteal ridge, 3rd trochanter or fossa hypotrochanterica.
Gorilla, Chimpanzee and Orang-outan: a spiral fossa on the Jateral aspect of
the femoral shaft; this is the fossa hypotrochanterica of these animals. It
is the largest and most distally placed in the Gorilla...
* Appleton, A. B., Journ. Anat., vol. 56, pp. 296-306, 1922.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 13
Cercopithecidae: gluteal ridge, replaced or accompanied occasionally by a
fossa hypotrochanterica...
He adds that, in a Cercopithecus sab. and a Papio ham. the fossa
takes the form of a groove in these two named specimens. A mere
flattening is present in Nasalis larv., a slight groove in Nas. larv. juv.
It sometimes takes the form of a faint pit, with prominent medial lip.
No fossa was met with in American monkeys and in Prosimiae.
In his concluding remarks Appleton accentuates the fact that:
in this paper no attempt is made at discussing the significance of ridges and
of fossae at the site of muscular attachments. Facts established in this paper,
however, suggest caution in the employment of the fossa hypotrochanterica tor
the natural classification of Primates..... The distribution of fossa and of
the alternative gluteal ridge (when large, known as a third trochanter) is an
argument against this assumption..... Until more is known of a possible
functional significance for the appearance of a fossa at the site of insertion of
M. gluteus maximus, it must be precarious to argue as to the nature of that
insertion, whether fossa or ridge, in the common ancestor of Hylobates, the other
Simiidae and Man.
The name fossa hypotrochanterica is conveniently reserved for a fossa, groove
or pit at the site of insertion of M. gluteus maximus on the femur.
Among Primates the hypotrochanteric fossa presents considerable variety of
situation; an extreme condition is presented by the large Simiidae.
Barring a few incidental mentions of the hypotrochanteric fossa,
the above is apparently about all that has been said about it. The
textbooks of anatomy generally allude to it but go into no details or
explanations. How little regard is paid to it may be seen from
the following quotation taken from the most recent treatise on
osteology : *
Examine and compare the gluteal ridge in different bones: in some it is a
prominent crest, in others only a broad rough area, and in others again it is
represented by a rough fossa (fossa hypotrochanterica), or these different aspects
may be more or less combined in one specimen.
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS FROM THE LITERATURE
The hypotrochanteric fossa was first noted and named in 1883,
by Houzé.
It is, in man, a slight to pronounced, nearly vertical, oblong hollow,
situated in the lateral portion of the posterior aspect of the upper
part of the femoral diaphysis. It differs in man, more or less, both in
location and shape, from that in other primates. It exists in close
relation with the gluteal ridge and the third trochanter.
* Frazer, J. E., The anatomy of the human skeleton, 3rd ed., pp. 147-148.
London, 1933.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The true significance and function of the fossa have never been
definitely determined. Most of those who have dealt with it regard
it as a mere structural variant for the insertion of the gluteus maximus
muscle. Houzé was of the opinion that the muscle inserted in its
borders as well as in its base, but the statement is of a rather general
nature and is not supported by any exact determinations. Bumuller
attributed the fossa to the vastus lateralis; for Evangeli-Tramond,
and probably after him Paul-Boncour, it represented the free space be-
tween the insertions of the gluteus and the cruralis; Pearson and
Bell doubted its dependence on the gluteus. There is no report in
any of the contributions to the subject, save that of Evangeli-Tramond,
of any observation on the actual contents of the fossa in the cadaver.
Houzé, with probably Testut and others, believed the fossa to have
been more frequent in earlier than in recent man. This assumption
has not yet been sufficiently corroborated. Houzé was evidently mis-
led, as far as his Furfooz material was concerned, by the large
proportion of juvenile femora in the collection.
Costa, Klaatsch, and Pearson and Bell came to regard the fossa as
an atavistic feature. Von Torok and Bertaux expressed the belief
that its frequency would show race differences. In Houzé’s and
Bertaux’, but not in Costa’s material, it appeared to be scarce in
the Negro.
Von Torok, Evangeli-Tramond, and Pearson and Bell found the
fossa more frequent in the males than in the females; Pearson and
Bell encountered it more commonly on the left than on the right
femur in modern Londoners, but the reverse in the Naquada.
Houzé encountered the fossa in the bones of fetuses and newborn
(Furfooz) ; Hyades and Deniker saw it in a Fuegian girl of eight;
Evangeli-Tramond was the first to recognize that it was better
defined in adolescent than in adult femora. Boncour, in hemiplegic
cases, saw the hollow more frequently and more marked on the
affected than on the sound side.
In the opinion of Houzé, Bumiiller, Martin, Lehmann-Nitsche,
Boncour, and Klaatsch, the fossa stood in close or even genetic asso-
ciation with the subtrochanteric flattening of the shaft and its lateral
lipping at that level—in other words, with platymery ; but such asso-
ciation was not acknowledged by Manouvrier or by Evangeli-Tramond,
and was found to be but slight by Pearson and Bell.
Pearson and Bell could detect no significant association between
the fossa and the third trochanter ; and they failed to recognize it in
the gorilla.
NOSE THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 15
Appleton, finally, called attention to additional fossae of muscular
origin on the shaft of the primate femur.
The more noteworthy statistical data as to the frequency of the
fossa in different racial groups may be tabulated as follows:
|
No. mass Fossa All
People Author of fe- | Sexes | Ages | Sides aged less Trace | with
mora i marked fossa
Percent| Percent| Percent| Percent
Neolithic of Bel-
gium and France| Houzé 110 | both all DOCH eens dopeke ays 44.-
Merovingian. .... i 30 e a is SG Ry age va 23.-
Modern Belgian.. . oe 67 = * Fe ee ee Bren 10.5
Bronze Age,
Enum earyiace) = Von Toérdk 76 | male adult ‘ Minas etirac ons 30.2
Bronze Age,
DUNS aALy esi =) tm 32 | female “ * Sissi Ase: patie 6.2
Modern Europeans| Costa to2 | both : ss Feit aye Atal 20.4
PAP riCarrs teks |-tea ae e 12 iW ye = ae leh ahs anes 50.—
MuUegians sce ce as 37 vy most oi ap te ati ier PRLOO r=
young
Diverse Negroes. .| Bertaux Aa lees RENE e ats “aa Ws A 8.8
Guanches........ + Dial Cacia sake a ess: San Sees at 38.-
uegianseei ssc Hyades and 29 | both all ‘ Beads Have Ae 3 44.8
Deniker
Modern Evangeli-
Frenchmen Tramond 60 | male adult af S43 10.— 36m 48.3
Modern a
Frenchmen 60 | female ee “ te) TA], 23103 36.7
Swabians and Lehmann-
Alemans Nitsche 62)||| ars Mee a Scroke avers ae 37
Modern Germans.| Bumiiller 407 | both Seas by shee Ae ties 49.1
Naquada Pearsonand| 388 | male oe 3.35 9.28 | 16.24 28.9
(predynastic) Bell 422 | female o 2.61 5.69 | 15.64 23.9
Egyptians of
which
paired
304 | both roratind cl lat | eemenerar Spl ee brands 31.6
304 + See aene evs Bs a saMars 217
385 ? sees || iboth| 7408 Sesralelyes. 30.4
Modern Londoners nS 225 | male adult | right} .... pate sees 373
236 ae . left geeeh siaheve Aare 2.4
170 | female ss TIP ht eer Nonst nara 22d!
179 + oA left Bee oie Bert bit 29.0
Mean of neolithic
to modern Euro-
peans of both
sexes and both .
SIDES etree rae aap eis feces 1,816 | both all both) 7s3 -- Res Sane 30.7
(mean) of thileaveragies.... <|.«-.-- - SL D})
The value of the above data is vitiated by the uncertainty in many
cases as to the sex and age of the specimens, and by the complete
lack of information as to what was included in their reports by most
of the authors.
2
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
All three reports in which the bones were separated as to sex (Von
Térdk, Evangeli-Tramond, Pearson and Bell) indicate that the fossa
is more common in the males than in the females.
As to side, the only two reports, both of Pearson and Bell, are
contradictory.
NEW OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOSSA
My own interest in the hypotrochanteric fossa was not fully aroused
until T examined a series of adolescent human femora. The fossa in
these appeared, oddly enough, not only more common and better de-
veloped than in the femora of adults, but in some of the speci-
mens it amounted to a truly major feature, all of which called for
further study. Fortunately I could draw on the now unrivaled col-
lections of bones, both adult and juvenile, in my own division and was
able to supplement these later, thanks to the kindness of Gerrit S.
Miller, Jr., and Prof. T. Wingate Todd and his associates, by the
invaluable anthropoid collections in the division of mammals, United
States National Museum, and in the department of anatomy, Western
Reserve University, in Cleveland. The number of specimens ex-
amined was as follows:
Material Examined tn the Present Study
No. of
No. of ; femora
femora Juvenile Adult
Lemurs: Anthropoids :
AMIGERIIO. cn xtieey Cs cu vc an ks 2 Gorillas ccs 66 77
PUG er niece Wie aiente warNs ant 14 Chimpanzees .... 50 00
New World monkeys: Oranges) san corre 32 42
WAXVONIIO: sata hs Wiave-s sr Susiy ees 11 Gibbons. ssicsnasx 2 35
IAN tar cir nto oe ON he ra ek 42
Old World monkeys :
TITWONTIES Aivsccs Secure sacral 20
CAG ST RE ang Can here eter 47
Human: Fetal to infant : con
Weese swwihites (miscellaneous )icn.cccrsiei os men ee ccc sreioaie 101
Ue Sra Nearness CmiSCellaneousyiaencineaeceue ci eercmicis csi tiaee 262
Child-adolescent-subadult :
CeeS: wWwrihites:= Cmiscellaneous) ncn caceicc as oe ener yantonee 20
WeSsc Negroes: (Cmiscellaneous))ics cnc cow ck ein Nix oltre s eons 106
Old ‘Hevptians a (ello Dynasty) nn oc nice circtes sis cl ohne on Rees 135
Old Peruvians (Pachacamac and Chicama)................. 1I4
NU As Indians) (Cmiscellantous)i(.. ch... «cnc ste unk meee ete 626
BigkimOsi= Gala skart) avi etna c nee src A cents Se Re, eee 22
NO} I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 17
Iluman: Adult: Ree
Si SmevVhites: (miscellaneous) tra ncn cso tecmee com elsmuclnensmars 1,000
Use NEerOESMm(INISCEMLATICOUS) nn. aletene s\rclalelelae violet ales a0ye 100
Daa ey DEAS Ki ToL UCN TIA GLY ao reli sisi kysia dass. 0's. 0/8) oelalnasd bai. 200
Old Peruvians (Pachacamac and Chicama)................- 868
5 Ns Ahnvabennsy «(Gieblyec lenoteercS) res 8 pie tis U eile eta Oiela o hence 3,890
ELS AITIOS Me (EAN ASKIN) amen ma itntca, crecslniniciets aarteceratere csteralives acerane lovers desu? 718
DIETS MTT oa ARSE TN rien CLE nh ris a NRA Set anesa Sra eta delaes (aka ie hemea nas 137
Kodiakcaslislamdensmes (ppe=-\ lets) ira viascac nalts selene epiniriets 154
@himeseu(Garitoms) meter ries cases bh aiuse ohe bat opatcoke sear ae a 152
THE FOSSA IN LEMURS
ITypotrochanteric Fossa in Lemurs
No. of
femora l’ossa in
Hapalemiutsmmacdtitiaes seein tacienr ect. 4
epidolenmitirSsractilte nie) als iia cieloretlar 6
Lemurs (various), adolescent.......... 2
ACU Gre mera rector reetetcnecharem aint 4
SOLA an Hectionte mie ae arcane euaenere cess 16
All these specimens present a more or less marked marginal gluteal
ridge (forming a part of the lateral border), and rising from the
proximal part of this, a well-developed to pronounced process, the
“third trochanter ”’; but there is not a trace in any of these specimens
of the hypotrochanteric fossa.
THE FOSSA IN NEW WORLD MONKEYS
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in New World Monkeys
No. of
femora Fossa in
Alouattas (Howlers),* adult........... 34 os
Ateles seadolescent snmrnieraiatine iene 8 2 (a pair)
ACIS mente sty seater hai eile teve tees 5
Geabist young wires cae pee rata ete cincke roi 3
ATI taMee te Eecet ee tveteey ananer maine vie 2
Callicebus AgUli ap. hier tera cane ierie > = I
KOLA MENS el cwn rele aay sleaele sax’ aisha 53 2
a Several varieties.
In all these American monkeys the gluteal ridge, generally rather
distinct, is marginal or nearly so; and in the Alouattas and the Ateles
there is frequently on the upper part of the ridge a trace to fair
development of a third trochanter, but not of the lemuroid form—
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
more of an anthropoid nature. In none, however, barring one adoles-
cent Ateles, is there any trace of the hypotrochanteric fossa.
The exceptional specimen (skeleton no. 984, U.S.N.M.) is, accord-
ing to Gerrit S. Miller, Jr., a true Ateles, and from Brazil, and
the only specimen from that region in the Museum collections. Both
its femora, and particularly the right, show the hypotrochanteric fossa
well developed, unmistakable, and very similar to that in human sub-
jects. The gluteal ridge is plainly discernible, and there is no third
trochanter. The proximal fourth of the shaft is stout and approaches
the quadrilateral. The fossa on the right femur measures IT by
2.5, on the left 10 by 2.5, millimeters. It is situated on the posterior
part of what here is the lateral surface and is as usual directly adjacent
to the gluteal ridge. Except for the conformation of the shaft at
this level the fossa is exactly in location, form, and character as in
a human femur. It is strange that this should be the only specimen
with the fossa among all the Ateles and the other American monkeys
examined, but such is the case.
THE FOSSA IN OLD WORLD MONKEYS
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Old World Monkeys
No. of
femora Fossa in
Baboonsys young. ese ianie cists water eeters 2
Adu each oO ete 12
Dheropitheci; adolescent 22.42.32 .505-.
adults fois.cscnisceecmares 2
INasalisura cli sc een sro secreress crsrersenanel reel 2
Cynopitheci, adolescent <....-......¢.. 2
ACULE: Herve wia/eroisysieverel s.erae eis 4
Erythrocebi, subadult) <o.-.acs<se er ae 2
AdUteeeeehen sae ts 4
Rresbytis, adolescent i. ee.. cee secemm ec 4
ACE Pee tens eee 10
Macaques: y.OUNGy Maine ae oe mibieeleie cle @.. 6
adolescent wacee mirc seins 8
ACUIED Sane earnkeesee Seas 13
SING tall ese s38. cht is CoMoused eich ean eats 73
« Several varieties.
Gluteal ridge none to marked, generally marginal ; third trochanter
absent in over 90 percent; hypotrochanteric fossa, no trace.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 19
THE FOSSA IN ANTHROPOID APES
Conditions as to the hypotrochanteric fossa in the anthropoid apes,
aside from the gibbons and siamangs, are widely different from those
of the lower apes; but the forms differ also considerably inter se,
as well as from humans, but in other respects. The gibbons approach
the monkeys, as they do in so many other characters.
The results of the observations will be seen in the table on page 20.
The gibbon femora, it is seen, have not even a trace of the hypo-
trochanteric fossa in nearly 86 percent of those examined, and in but
two among the five bones with the fossa is it at all fairly developed.
However, where the fossa is present, it approaches the human type,
though it is more marginal; and in the bone in which it is best de-
veloped it presents a new feature—it is a groove without lower (distal )
boundary, and not a circumscribed fossa. This is a feature that has
not hitherto been reported, but one with which we shall meet again
in these reports.
The gluteal ridge in these gibbons is either absent or ranges in
development up to fairly well pronounced. There is no third
trochanter.”
Among the three large anthropoid apes, the hypotrochanteric fossa
is most frequent in the orang and least so in the chimpanzee, but in
all three genera its presence is relatively common. This is so striking
in contrast with the lower apes that the fossa, as far as the order
of the primates is concerned, may henceforth justly be regarded as
essentially a higher-anthropoid, and, as will be seen later, also human,
character.
In the orangs the fossa is almost universal, though not often very
pronounced. It is as a rule more or less marginal, i.e., partly or
wholly in the lateral border. In two pairs of the femora, one from
Borneo and one from Sumatra, the fossa is displaced entirely to the
lateral part of the anterior surface, and in one other Sumatra orang
femur there is a partial displacement of such a nature. This com-
plete or partial displacement 6f the hypotrochanteric fossa is another
feature that has not been reported before, but its reality is unquestion-
able. (See pl. 4.)
The differences in the incidence and character of the fossa between
the juvenile and adult femora in the orangs is obscured by the in-
sufficiency of the number of specimens for such a comparison ; never-
theless, the adults show clearly a larger proportion of the submedium
“7 Observations on these formations were recorded in every case and will be
dealt with more in detail in a separate article.
VOL. 92
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA Zl
(moderate), the juveniles a larger proportion of the medium forms,
which means that on the whole the fossa is better represented before
than in the adult stage. Some interesting conditions bearing on this
point will appear later in this paper.
We find in the gorillas the hypotrochanteric fossa differing con-
siderably from that in the other anthropoid apes and especially from
that in man. It is generally spacious, oblique, at least partly marginal
(in the lateral border), situated low on the shaft—reaching in some
instances nearly to the middle—often shallow, and very decidedly
rougher than in man. There was found no marked extension of the
fossa over the lateral border onto the anterior surface. In four of the
pronounced cases the ‘‘ fossa”? was a marked groove.
The frequency of the occurrence of the fossa in the older gorillas
is nearly the same as in the chimpanzees, but is less than in the orangs.
The age differences are not so marked as they are in the orangs.
There is a mild diminution during the growth period of the “ absents ”
and “traces”, and but a slight increase in the more pronounced forms
of the fossa from adolescents to adults. On the whole, it may be
said that the fossa in the lowland gorilla increases moderately in
frequency as well as in development from childhood to adult life.
In one adolescent left gorilla femur the hypotrochanteric fossa con-
sists of two superimposed hollows, the upper of medium, the lower of
submedium dimensions. There is no mistaking the second hollow for
Appleton’s pectineal fossa or accessory adductor groove.
The hypotrochanteric fossa in the gorilla, according to all the indi-
cations of its large rugose surface, gives attachment to a powerful
muscle—doubtless the gluteus maximus; and the same must be true,
it would seem, of at least the more pronounced fossae in the orang
and the chimpanzee. In none of these forms is the gluteal ridge,
even when most distinct, of the human character and development.
Furthermore, neither in the gorillas nor in the orangs have I seen
any trace of a third trochanter; in the chimpanzees, though this
feature occurs in roughly 9 percent of the femora, it is never as
markedly developed as in some humans. It would seem to follow from
all this that the fossa plays a more important functional part in these
apes than it does in man; in man, on the other hand, the gluteal ridge
and tuberosity (third trochanter) play the greater role. All this will
be considered further under the human materials.
In the chimpanzees, the frequency of the fossa in children is much
less, in older subjects slightly less, than in the orang, and its charac-
teristics are slightly more like those in the human femur. None of the
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
fossae in this genus was of the nature of a groove. In location they
were in general more or less marginal and not infrequently rather
low. In the two femora of one adult, each with a pronounced oblique
fossa, the latter, after hollowing markedly the lateral border, extends
on the right bone largely, on the left partly, onto the anterior surface
of the shaft.
The age differences in the incidence and development of the fossa
in the chimpanzees are very noticeable. There is a steady and marked
decrease from childhood to adult life in the “absent” and “trace”
records, which indicates that the fossa continues to originate and
develop during the growth period. Its greatest frequency as well as
its optimum development are evidently not reached in this genus
until within the adult period. The fossa occurs with strikingly less
frequency in the children than in the adults.
SUMMARY OF OBSERVATIONS ON ANTHROPOID APES
The gibbons and siamangs, so far as the hypotrochanteric fossa is
concerned, show conditions more like those of the lower apes than
those of the larger anthropoids. A distinct form is rare, occurring in
roughly 5 percent of the femora.
In the three large anthropoid apes the fossa is frequent—as a
distinct to pronounced depression—in the adolescent and adult
femora, being present in 73.8 percent of the gorillas, 75.8 percent of
the chimpanzees, and 80.4 percent of the orangs.
In most gorillas, and not infrequently in the chimpanzees, the fossa
is situated low on the shaft—decidedly lower than in humans; in
the orangs the level of the hollow is nearly the same as that in man.
In all the orangs and generally in the gorillas and chimpanzees the
fossa is partly to wholly marginal, involving the lateral border of
the shaft. Occasionally, the fossa will encroach on the anterior sur-
face, and in four orang femora it was completely displaced to this
surface.
In one gibbon and four gorilla femora, instead of a circumscribed
fossa, there was a marked groove without any lower (distal)
boundary.
In many of the gorillas, less commonly in the chimpanzees, and
occasionally in the orang, the fossa is spacious and rough and has
plainly served for the attachment of a powerful muscle, doubtless
the gluteus maximus.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 2
wn
THE FOSSA IN EARLY MAN
The hypotrochanteric fossa, according to Boule (“ L’homme fos-
sile”’, p. 248, 1913), is present in a rudimentary form in the casts of
the femora of Neanderthal and Spy, and clearly in the two femora of
La Ferrassie I; but it is wanting in those of La Chapelle, and in
La Ferrassie II the bones are too damaged to permit of the deter-
mination.
Pearson and Bell, who also doubtless examined only casts, make
some erroneous assertions. We may repeat here what they say
Cp. 453)!
The fossa hypotrochanterica is well marked in Neanderthal R., and is quite
definite in Neanderthal L. and in Spy I and Spy Il..... Galley Hill has a
slight hypotrochanteric fossa on the mesial side of the ridge preceding the third
trochanter. The fossa also appears in all Verneau’s femora whether of Cromag-
non or Negroid type. Homo mousteriensis (Hauseri) is defective at this point.
We may conclude that the fossa hypotrochanterica is usual in all types of Primo-
genial Man.
The writer, who has examined all the originals and has, moreover,
first-hand casts at his disposal, finds the following conditions:
Pitheeanthnopus femur. 2... 6.5205. 36: Fossa existed, now almost filled with
secondary deposits of the bone, so that
only a trace remains.
Neanderthal, right femur 22:5. 05--...- Moderate fossa.
left oT a Mle Rte arctan acsyaiers No definite trace.
Spy. Sutiale MemmOLa). clei. ae tala ee ieieres) at Moderate fossa present on each.
Degcrea itr mtmicles Let ects) ceetansesya «eee clteh sl Traces of a fossa.
ar @uiniaectult. Lene en brcmyite sane lsia ste No fossa.
The Galley Hill femur does not belong in this cofmpany; and the
hypotrochanteric fossa is never located mesially to the gluteal ridge.
The above conditions of the fossa in the adults of early man do not
differ substantially from those in man of today.
THE FOSSA IN LATER AND MODERN MAN
As already mentioned in connection with the anthropoid apes, the
whole of what may be called the gluteal region on the posterior aspect
of the proximal part of the shaft of the femur differs in man in
important ways from that in the anthropoid and lower apes. Adult
man, in general, has a more pronounced and especially more rugged
gluteal ridge; this ridge is only exceptionally, and then usually but
partly, marginal; the gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter) is much
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
more common and more developed ; the hypotrochanteric fossa is as a
rule relatively high on the shaft and is hollowed in the lateral part
of the posterior surface, rarely approaching, and never embedded
in, the lateral border of the bone. And there are other differences,
which will be brought out in our detailed studies. All of this implies
that there must exist, between man and the rest of the primates,
important differences in muscular attachments and in other soft parts
of the region in question. In comparing the features of this region
in man with those of the other primates, we are comparing, therefore,
what basically are homologous formations, but formations that in
their ultimate development in man and the other genera are no longer
necessarily fully equivalent morphologically or functionally. The
hypotrochanteric fossa, which is here more especially considered, al-
though present and even frequent in man, may thus be in him an
“ emerited ” survival, a still frequent but no longer functionally im-
portant memento of his past, rather than a still fully active cog of his
mechanism.
It may be useful to bear these reflections in mind when confronted
with some of the curious results of this study.
THE FOSSA BEFORE AND ABOUT TIME OF BIRTH
Material Examined
Femora
Ws Se aWihites: (miscellaneous) cemiele irae sitet 161
U.S. Negroes (fullblood and mixed-blood)..... 262
The first traces of the fossa may be discerned occasionally as early
as the fifth month of the intrauterine life; their detection is made
easier by the use of a magnifying glass of medium power. Its first
plain representation is a well-démarked, not depressed, evenly reticu-
lated roughness. As the age of the bones advances, this area assumes
slowly the character of a hollow, and the reticulation of its floor
diminishes until, in a fully formed fossa, the floor is generally fairly
smooth and uniform.
The formation of the first distinct stages of the fossa is mostly
associated with the appearance on its mesial border of the first traces
of the gluteal ridge, but the fossa may antedate the ridge, or it may
begin to develop later. We shall return to this discussion.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 25
The data on the fossa in fetal life and infancy follow :
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Fetal and Infantile Femora of U.S. Whites
er Slight Dee
Obl length of f Mod- . Above Pro-
tah cadlagenye P None Trace pea erate Medium medints Ec eieda
cm Percent|Percent | Percent Popeent | Percent percent Porcens
if towig5 Gifemora))..’.:. govg))||) 9)? |
BetOrs O59 (hs plemOra))l sew qaee 5 S)13 | 2Onanl ee Ol 7
Ato 4-95) (1oifemora)e 2. >. = 57-9 | 20.1) 25.1
5 tor5.95)(14 femora));......2| 35.7 | 28:6" | 28.6 Falk
Gita OO hu Golmemora)).. a0 --|-30-— -113353.\-30.— | 6627
tO 7.05 (38 temora yen...) 18.4 ly 34). 2) || 31).6)\| 10.5 2.6 256)
|
Sites o5(28ifemora) 2 221729 42.0 20 4) 14 3h 356
9.4 to 10.3 (6 femora)...... (In|sufficie|nt)
a As extracted from the body; all measurements by the writer.
6 Ina femur of 2.2 cm.
Hy potrochanteric Fossa in Fetal and Infantile Femora of U. S. Negroes
pi Slight
Oblique length of femur Mod- * Above Pro-
(with cartilages) None | Trace pee ere Medium recites nounced
em Percent| Percent] Percent} Percent} Percent| Percent} Percent
1.7 to 2.95 (9 femora)...... 88.9 Tita 2
Bacons.O5) (isi teniora)eae GOR2N ers e455 44!
Ato4-95 (20 femora). .¢. s..|| 50-— ) 40.— | 10.—
5 to 5.95 (42 femora).......| 47.6 | 26.2 | 26.2 |
6) £01695) (40;femora) ea.) - 2725) | 3255 |) $255 7
itor 7.5, (7/0 femora)... 27% -(6302— | 35-7 1 25e7, Tol I.4
Ritors Oo (Si temora)! 6,2 12 6) | 20n4 IN 3e 3h) (O. Ou) 4a U2a—
Oto los/5 (a7 femora) e-2 2|e EDS) |) 2024) 920.40) 023.15 5.9
a As extracted from the body; all measurements by the writer.
+ In a femur of 2.95.
The American Negro series, regrettably, includes admixture of
white blood and cannot therefore be fully representative. At it is,
the two racial groups show no great differences, and some of those
that do appear are doubtless due largely to insufficiency in number.
Shortly before term (femur length 6 to 6.95 cm), when the numbers
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
of specimens become more adequate, the conditions in the two groups
are seen to be closely alike. About and for a brief time after birth
(femur length 7 to 8.95 cm) the relations are as follows:
Comparison of the Fossa in Fetal and Infantile Femora of U. S. Whites and Negroes
| | | |
Oblique length of femur oneon suet Moderate | Medium Above
(with cartilages) Ree aistinice medium
7 to 8.95 cm Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent
U. S. Whites (66 femora)...... | 56.1 278 Teal oe Tea
U.S. Negroes (121 femora)... | 59.4 28.9 8.3 Das 0.8
The differences are still small but apparently significant. In the
white femora the fossa shows throughout a slight advantage. At and
shortly after birth the fossa may therefore be said to tend to be slightly
more frequent and more commonly slightly better developed in the
U. S. White than it is in the U. S. Negro.
The main point, however, shown by the above records is the gradual
appearance and growth of the fossa during those early stages. As the
age of the fetus and later that of the infant advances, the fossa be-
comes steadily more frequent and more substantial. In view of these
data it is evident that the formation of the hypotrochanteric fossa,
initiated in rare instances as early as the fifth month of intrauterine
life, begins in different femora at different periods before and even
after birth.
THE FOSSA IN CHILDREN, ADOLESCENTS, AND SUBADULTS
The available juvenile femora, although collectively considerable in
number, when divided into the more obvious ontogenetic periods are
still not always sufficient for our purposes. The inadequacy applies
particularly to the bones of the children and adolescents of Whites,
which are scarce in all our collections. On the other hand, however,
there are excellent series from racial groups that were not represented
in the fetal material, and altogether there is enough to bring out the
most salient facts about the feature under scrutiny.
The subdivisions to be used are: 1, The earlier childhood (up to
approximately 6 years of age); 2, later childhood (approximately
7 to 13 years) and earlier adolescence (both upper and lower
epiphyses still detached) ; 3, later adolescence (lower epiphyses alone
detached) ; and 4, subadult (approximately 19 to 21 years; all
epiphyses attached but lower still imperfectly so or but recently).
NO: 2 THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 27
In view of the inequalities of the series it will be best to give each
racial group a brief separate consideration.
U. S. WHITES
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in U. S. Whites, Children, Adolescents, and Subadults
Of
Small which
Mod- : Above | _ Pro-
No. of femora None | Trace ete aera Mech | Raraer eee er reael ae
groove
About term and Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent |/Percent
shortly after (66)*.| 18.2 | 37.9 | 27.3 | 12.1 3.- 15
Adolescents and
Subadults (26)... E504 (1 E54 | 1524) 1034-6 |) 11.5) |) 3.8 | 3-8
« From data given in preceding section.
Though the number of specimens in the adolescent and subadult
class is small, they nevertheless show that remarkable changes in the
fossa have been effected during the growth period. The proportion of
the “absent”, “ trace ”, and “ small”? have markedly diminished, and
the proportions of the “moderate” to “pronounced” cases have
correspondingly increased. The fossa plainly has continued to de-
velop, and in a few instances has probably even originated, during the
adolescent period.
U. S. NEGROES
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in U. S. Negroes, Children, Adolescents, and Subadults
Of
Small which
Mod- ‘ Above | Pro-
No. of femora None | Trace te See Medium) ediumlncunced man
groove
About term and Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent ||Percent
shortly after (121).] 26.4 | 33.— | 28.9 8.3 2.5 0.8
Childrenks(6)see eee (Insu/fficient| for co}/mparis|on)
Adolescent and _
Subacdultn(lOO) mee) shee elon Ft E OR 3G ea N lei a nates |i cAree)
4 One a groove.
The “absents”’ in these series have probably remained much the
same and would seem to indicate that in this racial group no new
fossae have originated after infancy. For the rest there are seen the
same phenomena as in the Whites, but still more pronounced: the
“traces” and the “ small’’ fossae have diminished, the “ moderate ”’
to “ pronounced” have very markedly increased. The fossa has kept
on growing during the adolescent to subadult period.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
XII DYNASTY EGYPTIANS
This material is from the deep rock shafts just to the south of the
pyramid of Lisht and is identified as of about 2000 B. C. It includes
135 juvenile femora, which, as to the hypotrochanteric fossa, show
the following conditions :
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in XII Dynasty Egyptians, Children and Adolescents
Of
Small which
r . Mod- . Above Pro-
No. of femora None | Trace Bee mete Medium) eciiminounced a
groove
| ae
Younger children Percent! Percent} Percent| Percent) Percent} Percent] Percent|| Percent
(up to about 6
VEAES) (55) is cee ase 22\°6) ||. BOn4: | 729 un 4|u Geer 1.8
Older children
(approx. 7 to 13
years) "(4'5)e.s. 254) S29) tity | 228.0) 2252 2a 2.2 22
Adolescents (all)
(5) ei reine Coie abe QGhl sca |, T4e gil Ta. 34) 280m 22.0) Mize Tell Geers)
The above data show the same progressive appearance and de-
velopment of the fossa as did the U. S. Whites and Negroes, but still
more strikingly. In the adolescents the fossa is nearly universal, and
in 40 percent of the femora of this stage of life it is markedly
developed.
In 6 (17.1 percent) of the adolescent bones the fossa is a marked
groove. This feature evidently is also one of later development, for
it is absent in the earlier stages of the growth period.
PREHISTORIC PERUVIANS
There are 114 pre-Columbian juvenile femora from Pachacamac
and Chicama, on the coast of Peru. They register thus:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Prehistoric Peruvians, Children and Adolescents
= noe
| Of
Small | which
No. of femora | None | Trace but Moe Medium pore Eun al a
aistinict mediumjnounced|| ¢,<.4-
groove
Children (all, mostly Percent} Percent| Percent| Percent} Percent} Percent} Percent|| Percent
older) (@5)5 a2 a2: PAsya(yel| Mite e || auiigrh, | PXOn— | 29%) 2.9 2.9 || (2.9)
Younger adolescents
(4S) heen eter iets 8E3 4.2 853) | DORA 3base|2One | Onna (Ge2))
Older adolescents
(Bi) eee ete ne BD AIR ace OS 75|| U2 35511 22400) oO) alin || n(GniS))
NOL THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 29
In the main the conditions are much like those in the previous
groups, the only exception being that one of the rather pronounced
fossae in an older child is a groove. There is also a sensible propor-
tion of fossa-grooves in both the adolescent groups. In the older
adolescents, it may be noted, the fossa is again almost universal, and
in nearly 40 percent—practically the same as in the Egyptians—it is
above medium to pronounced in development.
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
This group includes tribes from many parts of the continent, and
the bones range from pre-Columbian (the majority) to fairly recent
but probably free from white admixture. The number of juvenile
femora in this group is very respectable, reaching a total of 626
specimens, and ranging from preterm to subadult. There were no
indications of any material tribal or regional differences, and so all
the data may be dealt with as a unit. The conditions it shows are
as follows:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in North American Indians, Children and Adolescents
Of
Small yhich
Mod- + | Above | Pro- ||
No. of femora None | Trace pon Bee Medium Sen a en
groove
Younger children Percent| Percent} Percent} Percent] Percent! Percent) Percent Percent
(to approx. 6
VATS) ie (2O3)e ese B4EOnn 24a 72s n7a leone One Onde heer (0.7)
Older children
(approx. 7 to 13
years) (64)....... 15.6 Fao 2L49) |) 2626) || 25.— ees Weer e (4.7)
Younger adolescents |
CET) reseria ee bcote Be4ee4es 2) POO" 2oen 22 27 eTor aul ata)
Older adolescents
(G2 Ste iews nea 2.5 Tee Hey | ek Ol aul OR |e rae On| (ete)
The above results conform with those seen in the other groups
of femora. As age advances, during the growth period, the “none ”,
with the “trace” and “small” grades of the fossa, diminish, the
“medium” to “ pronounced” increase. From birth to later adoles-
cence there is a steady and marked increase in the incidence of the
fossa, with a progressive marked diminution in its “ trace”’ and
“small” grades, together with an equally progressive and marked
increase in large fossae. The “ above-medium” to “ pronounced ”
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
grades reach in the older adolescents nearly 40 percent, which is
strikingly similar to what has been shown by the femora of preceding
racial groups.
The fossa-groove, one example of which occurs in this group in
one of the older subjects among the younger children, progresses also
to reach its maximum frequency in the older adolescents. This form
also, therefore, appears more frequently as age advances.
THE ESKIMO
The last racial group from which there is a fair representation of
juvenile femora, is that of the Alaskan Eskimo. The material con-
sists of 224 specimens, probably all fullblood. They furnish the
following data:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Eskimo, Children and Adolescents
Of
Small | Mod- Above Pro- which
No. of femora None Trace but erate |Medium|medium|nounced a
distinct fossa -
groove
Younger children | Percent| Percent] Percent Percent] Percent} Percent] Percent]} Percent
(up to about 6
EATS) 1(7O) «sss Sieg £29249 1:4
Older children
(about 7 to 13
Ears) C55) sere Out 125-4) |) 3654. (205— Tee 1.8
Adolescents
(CID) (GO) Ere ieee eS aan Si tO | LS.2) | B5e4h | 20-25 rors Hie(5.m)
Once more, though somewhat less regularly (owing probably to in-
sufficient numbers), there is seen the gradual increase with age in
frequency as well as in the size of the fossa. On the whole, however,
this group shows somewhat less tendency toward the formation of the
hollow, and also of the fossa-groove, than did the preceding ones.
It will now be possible to make some brief and necessarily rough
comparisons of the conditions shown by the juvenile bones of the
several racial groups; comparisons that must suffer more or less not
only from the unequal and in instances insufficient numbers, but also
from the unequal age distribution within the different series. For the
purpose of these comparisons it will be of advantage to combine the
seven grades of the fossa into four larger subdivisions :
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 31
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in the Young
Younger Children (about term to 6 years)
Trace Submedium Above
Group and no. of femora None to to medium to
small medium pronounced
Percent Percent Percent Percent
Old Egyptians (§5)io. 6 0.) (2/5. 23.6 65.5 10.9
ING Aaiindians:(283)er ween se 34.6 48.4 NOn7, 0.4
EiskimoG7O) eam ren pe nerttsse sor. 51.4 BTeo 1.4
Older Chiidren (approximately 7 to 13 years)
OldtHeyvptiansi(45) esa 456 12-4 | 8.9
| 40.— 46.6 | 4.4
Ne AL Mndians (G4). th. ste | 1556 | 29.7 556 3.1
ska on (55) cote psa cence toe | 9.1 | 61.8 Dae 1.8
| |
Adolescents (approximately 14 to 21 years)
WA SeWihites"(26))he aera ELA. ol 30.8 46.1 7.6
Wass Nesroess(i00) seer a asta 31.- | 23.- 35.= II .—
OldiBeyptiansi(35) eee ee: 2 O Ma eA es, 42.9 40.—
OldiEeruvians: (79) 2. 25 | 623 II .4 44.3 38.-
INE Ate indians (270) se 5 a | 2.9 | 8.6 53-4 ae
Feskinm Op (QO) pee enw terses Weir 3 ES er 53-5 2On3
The main facts brought out by the above figures are obvious.
There are marked racial differences from early childhood onward.
The Whites and the Negroes among the adolescents, and the
Eskimos during childhood, show the least incidence and development
of the fossa, the Old Egyptians from later childhood on and the
North American Indians throughout, the most.
In adolescents, outside of those of the U. S. Whites and Negroes,
conditions show remarkable similarity. The fossa is very common,
and in from 30 to 40 percent of the femora it is at this stage a very
marked feature of the proximal third of the shaft of the femur.
This showing, it will be seen later, is of exceptional interest in the
generic history of the fossa.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
SEX AND SIDE IN JUVENILE BONES
Differences during the growth period in the incidence and develop-
ment of the hypotrochanteric fossa in the two sexes may exist, but
our body-sexed material is very inadequate, and reliable sexing of
juvenile bones themselves, except in the later stages of adolescence,
is impossible.
As to the right and left bones, some differences in the fossa appear,
but not with sufficient preponderance to have any definite significance.
The most suitable group for showing the conditions is that of the
North American Indians. In condensed form, the group shows the
following:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa on the Two Sides in Juvenile North American Indians
Trace Moderate Above
Age group and no. of femora None to to medium to
small medium pronounced
Younger children:* Percent Percent Percent Percent
Rucht(r45) ems rece Aes 2am 50.3 15.9 0.7
Wefts 3S) ae het bee 36.2 46.4 17.4 rae
Older children:
Ra ghitn Gin) ete eters ae 16.1 22°23 45.2 6.5
Meehta(3 >) here pec eee 15.2 27143 57.6 Peis
Younger adolescents:
Rody (GO) yew. ccrar ce eres aoe) 20.- 48.3 28.3
CLEA (5 7) Retreat ete ees Be 5 Ui me 2a3 47-4 36.8
Older adolescents:
Righite(Si) thepae nse an see 2.5 122 50.8 39.5
Welti(Sin) acer scm a 25 4-9 58.- | 34.6
* In all the series here the bones are largely pairs.
There are, it is seen, differences, but they are so irregular that it
is hard to recognize any definite tendencies. Elimination of the
unpaired bones does not materially change the picture.
THE FOSSA IN ADULTS
To learn the full life history of the fossa, in view of what has
been seen hitherto it would be desirable to segregate the adult ma-
terial into at least three categories, namely, the young adults, the
middle-aged, and the old; but such a division with most of our series
would be impossible. It will be feasible, however, to subdivide adults
of each racial group on the basis of sex and side.
To render the data as intelligible as possible, the total number of
specimens in each group will first be dealt with as a unit. The results
follow:
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 33
Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Race, Both Sexes and Both Sides, Adults
Of
Small rhicl
Group and no. of femora | None | Trace ett od: Medium pabaves eaerOn Aan
groove
U. S. Whites Percent] Percent| Percent] Percent] Percent] Percent| Percent eae
(GEOOO) Peas ete BIE ene | 220n— | L526. M2 PyelS) | Coys ||| (Gusts)
U. S. Negroes
OO) Saeko Sel Og | eae aM | Ly Dice\| 2 ae Alaa)
Old Egyptians
(BOO) eeshnsrcerrrt hay ale A765) TAs | Bx | ua) Leo 3.- 4.— || (5.-)
Old Peruvians
(SOS) ee riotnies cicher: 2A Ay |eO\. 7. | 30n5 | ahOvO 7G 029m | Oe || (Ozh)
N. A. Indians
KB°SGO)tnrie ase E2224 LO. 5.432.220.7403 3 TSh | 2 On: | (ia)
Kodiaks, pre-Aleut
CHS) cence eee THRG NZOn2 eer da 2 ae ae Sule aie 1.3 || (0.6)
NI SUESM(T 37) sera on: Die OL Ser QiilmeL Orrin ory met ae grea 1.5 es
Eskimos (718)...... LOR Ong ee at 22e sa lets miu ga5 Te Zul Gee)
| |
Chinese (Canton) | |
CNS 2 iene re Soc S eee ene Mal ae Sul | 769 Helen allo)
There are, it is seen, numerous and in some cases marked differ-
ences both in the frequency and the development of the fossa. To
render these still more obvious, the data may be condensed, as has been
done for adolescents, and arranged on the basis of the combined weight
of the last two columns:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Race, Both Sexes, Both Sides, Adults (Condensed)
Group and no. of femora None or Mote tet immediate
small medium | pronounced
[ Percent Percent Percent Percent
Ghimesen(@iS 2) aise c aeieack 38.8 38.2 2127, 1g
Old Peruvians (868)... 2-2... 24.4 50.2 Dee I.
We Ss Wihttes) (1000)... ates «ai: 320 38.2 27 .— 2.8
UE SaNegroes) (100) .2 src. eyes 31.- 39 .— 28 .— 2.-
Kodiaks, pre-Aleut (154)....... Uso 50.6 2ON2 Arts
ING Ae eGtans (41S00)..c)scey oe L202 ea 34.- Den
Old Egyptians, 00), 62)00 sah: 20.5 B75 35.- 7.
Slim Osim (7A) awe ene tense en ae 10.4 42.8 41.8 Aas
AGUESHK (IGS Seas ola oskree Lie 7) 31.4 54.- 3.-
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The group differences may now be seen very plainly. The lowest
incidence as well as the lowest development of the fossa is shown by
the Cantonese Chinese, and the next lowest by the Old Peruvians ;
the highest occurs in the Eskimos, Aleuts, and the Old Egyptians.
The U. S. Whites and Negroes—the latter, as far as the adult bones
are concerned, all fullblood or very nearly so—are as remarkably
close in the adults as they were in the young, and in both the well-
marked fossa is rather infrequent. The North American Indians
and the pre-Aleut Kodiak Islanders, much alike, occupy a medium
position.
It is evident that matters in some of the instances do, in others
do not, follow racial affinities. There is a close similarity in conditions
in the racially widely apart Whites and Negroes, and a dissimilarity
between the fundamentally related Whites and the Old Egyptians.
The Old Peruvians differ, as they do in other respects, from the com-
bined contingents of the same race in North America, but are near
the Chinese, with whom the racial affinity is considerably less. The
frequency and prevalent development of the fossa are plainly, there-
fore, manifestations of no great value as racial criteria.
In groping for other possible causes of the above differences it
is soon appreciated that the subject, as is usual with biological prob-
lems, is not simple. There are doubtless involved old chance segrega-
tions and consequently differing hereditary influences, and there may
be ontogenetic factors. One of the latter that would seem to deserve
especial consideration is the general development of the bone. Looking
at the above data from this point of view we detect some concordance
—but also some disharmonies. The Canton Chinese have on the
average relatively short and weak femora, and so have the old
Peruvians—and these two groups stand together at the lowest inci-
dence of the fossa; on the other hand, very strong, though not the
largest, femora are common to the Eskimos and the Aleuts, while
strong as well as large bones are shown by the Egyptians, and these
three groups stand at or near the maximum end of our series. But
the pre-Aleut Kodiaks have also relatively short and weak, the
North American Indians prevalently large and strong, bones, yet the
two stand side by side in the middle of the groups; and both the
U. S. Whites and Negroes have relatively large and often powerful
femora, yet they stand in the scale of frequency and development
of the fossa next to the weak Peruvians. Thus here too, although
some probability of a correlation between the fossa and the mass
of the femur cannot be denied, the conditions are not definite and
regular enough for any clear deductions.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 35
Another feature that since Houzé’s initial report has been believed
by many to stand in correlation with the fossa is platymery, and the
concomitant lipping of the lateral border, of the subtrochanteric part
of the femur. Pearson and Bell, who tested the matter mathematically,
found (p. 79) that there was only “a small but just sensible correla-
tion between platymery and the presence of the fossa”. How small
the correlation is may be seen from the two columns below:
THE FOSSA AND PLATYMERY
Same nine racial groups arranged
on the basis of incidence and
development of hypotrochanteric
Our nine racial groups arranged on
a basis of platymery, from its
maximum (lowest index) to its
minimum (highest index) :
Old Peruvians
Aleuts
N. A. Indians
Pre-Aleut Kodiaks
Eskimos
Old Egyptians
Chinese
U. S. Whites
U. S. Negroes
fossa, from highest to lowest :
Aleuts
Eskimos
Old Egyptians
N. A. Indians
Pre-Aleut Kodiaks
U. S. Negroes
U. S. Whites
Old Peruvians
Chinese
The first column is probably not absolutely stable. Larger num-
bers of specimens in such groups as the Aleuts, Kodiaks, Chinese,
and Negroes, or the addition of a sufficient number of females to the
latter two groups, which include males only, might change the exact
position in the row of some or even all of them, but such changes
would in all likelihood be small. They would not substantially alter
the obvious fact that there can at best be but little correlation between
the two features in question.
Nor are these the only facts that speak against such an interde-
pendence of the fossa and platymery, and also between the fossa and
the lip of the lateral border. There are highly platymeric and lipped
femora with but moderate or small fossae, and there are large fossae
with but moderate platymery lipping. And the conditions in the
anthropoid apes, so far as they apply to the question, do certainly
not testify for any clear correlation.
In view of all this, in the rare cases where a pronounced fossa co-
exists with marked platymery and lipping, it seems legitimate to
doubt their causal connection. These considerations, however, con-
nect directly with the subject of the etiology of the fossa, a detailed
discussion of which will be left for another paper.
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
x
ADOLESCENTS COMPARED WITH ADULTS
We shall at this point present facts which are of the utmost interest,
and to which thus far there are no close parallels in anatomy and
anthropology.
In dealing with the fetal and juvenile femora it was seen that the
hypotrochanteric fossa began to form in some bones as early as
the fifth month of the fetal life and that thenceforth it gradually in-
creased, both in incidence and development, throughout the growth
period. The long stretch of time during which it continued to originate,
as well as to enlarge, is in itself a phenomenon of no small interest.
By the latter part of adolescence, in all the groups whose bones
were available for the study, traces of the fossa to a pronounced hol-
low, were seen to have become almost universal. We now pass to
the adult material, where we encounter a distinct surprise. The records
of the frequency and spaciousness of the fossa in the adults show
radical differences from those in the preadult life. These differences,
moreover, are found in all the groups, and they cannot possibly be
due either to chance or error. They are shown in the next table:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Adolescents and in Adults Compared (Both Sexes,
Both Sides)
| Small Mod-
Group and no. of femora None | Trace but erate
distinct are
Above Pro-
Medium 2
diu medium}/nounced
— 7 \-
U. S. Whites: | Percent} Percent! Percent Percent Percent Percent! Percent
Adolescent (26)........-| 15-4] 15-4 | 15-4 | 34-6 | 11.5 3.8 3.8
Adult G@kOoO). se 5.) G2c— || L822 20). =| 5.8 cern.2 246 0.2
U. S. Negroes:?
Adolescent (100)... ...| 31.— | 16.— }) 7:= || 16.— | 19:— |) Fe= ee
Adult (oo)he 4.22 Bie we One 2S yew | TT |e te 2.-
Old Egyptians:
WNdolescent (35) iirc || 1259) ||) nes | 8463] 14-3.) 2856) | e2e05 eae
INdults (200) e.2e oo: Se ZOnSe lea 5ale25e— lS ey sle7e— 2.= Ae
Old Peruvians: |
Adolescent(70)2-- =...) (6-3 DES $59) | EE I4 (3220) 2. Sel Sroes
A culte(SGS) ees. ak = ZAP ANI e 73) 3045) || sLOuo 750 9 0.2
N. A. Indians: |
Adolescent (279).......| 2.9 25 650 07-6) | 2529250 aoe
Adult (3,890)....--..-.| 1 rd Ato Gy | eee 2027, 1353 Tas 0.6
Eskimos: | ;
Adolescent: (99)........-|' 3.= | 3.— | 10.1 | 18.2 | 35.4 ) 20.29) oem
CUES C718) eles ee | 10.4 | 18.7 | 24.1 | 22E 3 TOs BE Loy:
« Series least satisfactory: among adolescents a very large proportion of subadults (19-21 years)
and a good many mixed-bloods; adults practically all full-blood. if
NO: I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 37
The above data are striking enough, but they will be even more so
if we condense them thus:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in Adolescents and in Adults Compared, Both Sexes,
Both Sides (Condensed)
Trace Submedium Above
Group | None | to to | medium to
small medium pronounced
U. S. Whites: Percent | Percent Percent | Percent
INGOLESCENER a iar 2rd ie) .ces 2 15.4 g0:8 | “46.5 | 7.6
Wate ee a ae 32'):— BoE 27.-—— || 2.8
U. S. Negroes: i
Adolescente: Sara. 28> 5 fas: re) he 2a 35.— 1
A Eee a eee ee a: yy ans 39.- 28.— | 2.-
Old Egyptians: |
Wdolescents.r-c.42)-)2.<2)-2-| 2.9 PAS eee a ae
GGA sce Cys sets ee] 20.5 27s esha, (fe
Old Peruvians: |
ING OIESCERE. Ge econ Neate) aoe 6.3 11.4 | 44.3 38.—
Ad npeeee ee rarer nes cee i, egg: sore) |) 2422 per
N. A. Indians:
Wdolescenti: eee ee hee 2.9 8.6 53-4 35-1
NIA fey ie eg EOE eae ee ip 22 ee 34 .— Fe
Eskimos:
Adolescente: S08 Vee tack ae 3-1} 1) 153-5 30.3
NAW ES a ame eye a cape 10.4 2.8 ~| 40-8 i=
General approximate means:
AG OlESCent =a 55.45 hs ee ce Guat 16.9 45-0'=. 2 7-—
ACE ee a) hon es oe eee 21.7 | 43-2 | 31-7 Beg
2 Omitting the Negroes.
+’ With the Negroes—10.2.
The above figures mean that in advancing through the adult life
the human femur loses a large proportion of the more marked grades
of the hypotrochanteric fossa, gains largely in the “ trace” to “ small”
grades, and to a considerable degree loses the fossa entirely.
This is a highly interesting and, in its definiteness, so far a unique
phenomenon in anatomy and anthropology. It is known, of course,
though only very generally, that structural changes proceed in prob-
ably. all parts of the body as age advances, but there is as yet no
parallel to such a peculiar and clear-cut range of manifestations as
offered by the hypotrochanteric fossa. Here is a formation of some
note which, it has been seen, advances steadily in both its incidence
and its development during a very large part of the growing period
but which, once the adult life is reached, enters upon a retrogressive
path tending toward its disappearance.
The strange phenomenon presents two problems. The first of these
is, what causes the long sustained development of the fossa during
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
the growth period; and the second, what causes its regression during
adult life.
The first question cannot be fully solved until we know precisely
what the fossa in man serves for. A portion of the development of the
fossa in size is possibly conditioned simply by the general growth of
the bone, though with a feature of this nature such a process may
not be as simple as it would seem at first thought. A more plausible
and appealing theory is that the fossa, during the growth period and
especially in adolescence, is functional but that it loses its value in this
respect during adult life. No definite conclusions on these points are
now possible; they can be reached only by extended observations on
suitable dissecting-room materials which thus far, notwithstanding
my efforts in this direction, could not be realized.
The second problem, or what causes the curious regression of the
fossa during adult life, is also an involved one. There is the weakening
functional cause, of which very little can now be said; and there is
the actual process of diminution-to-disappearance of the fossa in many
cases, which ought to be subject to observation.
As a matter of fact, all the stages of a gradual occlusion of the
fossa may be witnessed in human femora, and in some cases such an
occlusion starts far ahead of the adult life. Occasionally as early
as the later childhood a more or less noticeable ‘“‘ deposit’ of bone
may be observed in the upper part of the fossa. The process begins
as a rule in this upper part of the hollow and often in the form of
one or two isolated narrow vertical patches. Where it is larger, such
a “deposit ” looks not osteophytic, but like a flow of some originally
viscid substance, or as if made by the pastry-makers’ cone. As age
progresses, such “deposits” in the hypotrochanteric fossa become
slowly more frequent and more pronounced, and some of them may
clearly be seen to connect with and augment the gluteal ridge, whereas
in other cases they come to represent a gluteal tuberosity or third
trochanter. As the process is followed into the adult life, it is
possible to note all stages of obliteration of the fossa by these secon-
dary bony deposits, until in many instances only a small groove or
mere trace remains of the once well-marked hollow, and not infre-
quently the hollow disappears altogether, being traceable only by the
new bone formation. The fossa is thus encroached upon and more or
less assimilated by the progressive development of the gluteal ridge
and the need for a larger basis for the gluteal insertion.
Before this peculiar encroachment and assimilation begin, the fossa
in the human femur is in general free from excrescences or irregu-
larities that would denote the attachment of a powerful muscle. It
is fusiform, symmetrical, and fairly smooth, with few exceptions in
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 39
each of these characters. If any part of the gluteus maximus inserts
within the fossa before the secondary bone deposits begin, it can only
be the weaker fibers or the muscle sheath. But later the fossa is
certainly invaded by powerful strands of the muscle, or the weak
original strands develop in power.
The same processes here described occur in all the races and may
readily be studied from their inception. But nothing of this nature
is found in the anthropoid apes, where, in general, the fossa from
the start is seen to serve for a strong muscular insertion and is plainly
formed by this insertion. It appears that the conditions in these apes,
where the fossa is often of primary, the adjacent gluteal ridge of
secondary importance, and the gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter )
is absent or moderate, have become reversed in man, where the gluteal
ridge and tuberosity have assumed the primary position, and the
fossa, though it persists, seems to be a sort of left-over, of only secon-
dary significance. These observationggwould not hold good, however,
if the human fossa during the growth period should be found to
exercise some special function. It is tantalizing that, with all these
fine skeletal series now at our command, the last point cannot be
settled for the want of suitable dissection materials.
A few additional observations may be recorded.
In examining the adult femora it seemed in some bones that the
fossa may have regressed, both in depth and size, even without any
discernible secondary bone formation. This would imply interstitial
growth of bone underneath and about the fossa.
The oblong or rounded gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter) was
seen in some bones to be located completely above and well separated
from the fossa, not affecting this in any way; or to involve its upper
end; or to be lying sometimes completely within the hollow. In one
femur the tuberosity was situated as low down as the middle of the
fossa ; in none was it below the middle. In not a few adult specimens a
large tuberosity (third trochanter) alone so filled the fossa that only a
bare trace of it, perhaps only a part of its old outline, remained
perceptible. The tuberosity, when it is in the fossa, may be said to
have an even greater effect on the regression or disappearance of
the hollow than the gluteal ridge; but as the tuberosity in many cases
is a constituent part of the ridge, exact statements are difficult in this
connection.
The matter of the relation of the gluteal ridge to the gluteal tuber-
osity and the fossa will be dealt with further in another paper. The
main points that may succinctly be repeated are that in man, from
later childhood onward, the fossa in increasing numbers of cases
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
suffers through more or less extensive deposits of new bone in its lu-
men; that this new bone becomes assimilated by the gluteal ridge, or
forms a gluteal tuberosity (third trochanter), or both; and that the
diminution in the fossa progresses from above downward and from
the gluteal ridge outward until but a lateral or lateral-inferior rem-
nant of the hollow is left, or all traces of it are lost ; but that in some —
cases the fossa appears to diminish also by interstitial growth of the
bone underlying and surrounding it.
DIFFERENCES IN ADULTS IN THE TWO SEXES
Owing to the availability of good series of material, it is possible
to give here reliable data as to the sex differences in the hypotro-
chanteric fossa. The White and Negro bones were sexed from the
bodies; in a large proportion of the other specimens the sexing was
supported by the rest of the skeleton (with occasionally significant
articles found in the grave), and the rest were sexed simply on the
basis of ample experience. The data will best be given together:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Sex, in Adult Femora
Of
Small i
Group and no. of femora | None Trace att Mod Medium eee ned an
groove
U. S. Whites: Percent] Percent} Percent] Percent] Percent] Percent] Percent}]} Percent
Male (600).....| 32.3 | 16.3 | 19-7 | 16-7 | I1.5 2a3 0.2 || (1.8)
Female (400)...| 31.5 | 21.— | 20.5 | 14.5 | 10.7 T5 0.3) || (ra7)
U. S. Negro:
Male (64)...... 230An| L722 |220-0)-| 15-65) 1358 Zhai Gap)
Female (26)cu 44-4) 13-90, 254—)), 12-85 l,05- Once s. (2.8)
Old Egyptians:
Male (120)..... 2ORSa| te 7) |) 2422 LON 7s roe 2.5 5.8) || (nz)
Female! (80)! 4..|| 20:— |) 13.8" | 26.37/20: >5) 15.— 327, D2) (ees)
Old Peruvians:
Male (268)..... 30.3. E721 || 36-0 10.5 4.5 0.8 ee ants
Female (600) ..-.| 20-8 | 12.2 | 36-3 | 19.3 9.- I.- 0.3))||(Osn)
N. A. Indians:
Male (1,749). .-.| 13-8 | 20.— | 31.3 | 20.— | 12.9 [4 | 0265 (z=)
Female (2,141)..| 10.9 | 19.2 | 32.9 | 21.3 | 13-5 .6 0.6 || (3.-)
Eskimos:
Male (369)..... 1O.=-| 18.2. 1726268) 2.0) 11726 1) 330 a 2 aeRO)
Female (349)...| 10-9 | 19.2 | 21.5 | 22.6 | 21.5 3.4 OO) Ge
Condensed and rough
means of all:
Male (U7O)er el 2ha6 43.5 30.8 3.9
Female (3,606)..| 24.9 43.6 B0e7 2A
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 4l
The sex differences in the incidence and development of the hypo-
trochanteric fossa on the whole are, it is seen, rather insignificant. The
males have a slight excess of the large fossae and also of the fossa-
grooves, but in the American Indians, both North American and of
old Peru, it is the females that predominate slightly in this respect,
as they do also in the total frequency of the fossa.
More in detail, the Indians, both North American and those of
Peru, stand somewhat apart in this respect from the rest of the groups.
They show a larger proportion of the “ absent”’ and “ trace” in the
males, with a slightly larger proportion of the “ pronounced” forms
and of the fossa-groove in the females. The females here in this
respect, as in so many others, show more juvenile character. In the
rest of the groups, except the Negroes, where the numbers are in-
sufficient, the “ absent ” are nearly alike in the two sexes, the ry tRaAcey:
to “above medium” grades differ moderately and irregularly, and
the “ pronounced ” forms of the fossa and the fossa-grooves, equal in
the two sexes in the Whites, predominate in the males in the Egyptians
and the Eskimos.
The conclusion of Von Torok, Evangeli-Tramond, and Pearson and
Bell, that the fossa was more frequent in the males, is thus subject
to corrections. The important age factor, it may be said, is presumably
much alike in the two Indian and the Eskimo series, but differs in
the rest, which doubtless has had some effect on the records.
DIFFERENCES IN ADULTS AS TO SIDE
The large adult series of human femora at our disposal make it
possible to learn something definite on the differences in the incidence
and development of the hypotrochanteric fossa on the two sides of
the body. Pearson and. Bell’s results on this point were, it will be
recalled, contradictory, and nothing decisive was observed in this
respect on our North American Indian juveniles. The data, to start
with, may most conveniently be presented without regard to sex. A
very large proportion of the femora involved in the study are paired.
Some appreciable side differences evidently exist, but they are not
large. On the whole, the rights show more “absent” and “ trace ”—
meaning probably more obliteration; somewhat less of “small” to
“ medium ”’; about the same of the “ pronounced ”; and rather notably
more of the fossa-grooves. Group differences are small except in the
old Egyptians, where the right bones show decidedly more on one
hand of the “absent” and “ trace” and on the other of the “above
medium ” and “ pronounced,” as well as a much larger proportion of
the fossa-grooves.
‘
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Side in Adult Femora
Of
Small | i which
Mod- Wrediim Above Pro- Ai
Group and no. of femora None Trace ened cate niediim\nouticed poets
groove
U.S. Whites: _ % Percent Percent "Percent Percent Percent Percent Percent]| Percent
Right (500)....| 35-— | 18.4 | 20.— | 14.6) 9.—| 2-4] .-... (1.6)
ett (500); 221. 28)4 | 18. | 20:— | I7es | 13.4 2.8 0.4 || (2.-)
U.S. Negroes:
Right. (Si) o..4 4) 350) | 276. | T5a7 chetes |) Pte 2.- (5.9)
Left (49).......| 26.5 | 14.3 | 30-6 | 14.3 | 12.2 2.— Rp
Old Egyptians:
Rught(95))....... 24.2 | 17.9 | 22.0. | 12.6") 14.7 Ave 4.2 || (9.5)
ett(loOs\nereaaa| a7 46 |) 2726. | 22704) 19-1] F310) 3-Sull (te)
Old Peruvians:
Right:(457)-... -|| 24:5, | 13-8 1937-2) |) 15-5 SiS On 7/0) enol Reser
Deft G4it)socs0| 24-3 | 1357: B5r8q|| 278 |) 8 Tn 2) |), ORS KOe2)
N. A. Indians:
Right (1944). ..| 1327 |°20-— |) BPa9s\16c7 |) 1385 Ley, 0.6 || (2.5)
Left (1;946)....| 10.7 | 19.1 | 32.5 | 22:7 | 13.1 3 0.6 || (1.7)
Eskimos:
Right.(367).~: «.|/ 10.9) || 20.7) 2725.) 212 | 2575 on) 1.6 || (3.8)
Left (351)......| 10.— | 16.5 | 20.5 | 23-6 | 23-6) 4.— 17) Gee)
Rough means of all:
Right (at 4) nes e239.) Sul 25.91 il Woaaa| oe 2:3 153) I (39)
ett (3-362)s... 19.5: | 14.0) | 27-38) |) 10-79) stay 2.2 TAG |G)
That, however, side differences of distinct nature may occur in some
racial groups will be seen in the following records obtained on the
femora of male Canton Chinese:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa and Side in Chinese Femora
Of
Small which
Side and no. of femora None Trace ape Be Medium peas ithe pees
groove
; Percent) Percent} Percent} Percent) Percent| Percent] Percent]| Percent
Richt (77) reese seen 26.4 | 1925) |. 16.9 |) 15.6 | 10.4 easy Wnto re Nos)
BehtnG7/S) veecraseotuser- Ansa) 2247 |) i geasnl eee Si Tau lh eave | (Nes)
Conditions here in the first five grades (“‘none”’ to “ medium ”’)
are the reverse of those in all the preceding series, but the “above
medium” and “ fossa-groove” hold true to the general tendencies.
Differences such as these are, however, probably due less to race than
to localized group peculiarities.
INO THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 43
The exceptional showing of the Cantonese, who were all males,
raises the question as to possible differences in the relations of the
fossa on the two sides in the two sexes. This query may best be
answered by our two largest and racially well distinct groups, the
U. S. Whites and the North American Indians:
Hypotrochanteric Fossa According to Side in the Two Sexes
Of
Small which
5 I ts Mod- ; Ab Pro- 7
Group and no. of femora None Trace ane ae Medium| ieaiuetealiiced Noe
groove
U. S. Whites: Percent| Percent] Percent| Percent} Percent] Percent) Percent|| Percent
Male:
Right (300). .| 35-3 | 16:7 | 20.3 | 14.7 | 10.3 Di aa | Giese)
Beit (300) ..49200 3.) LO.— | 19 — | rS.7 1257 An |i (Ons ||n(2e3))
Female:
Right (200). | 36.—"|20.— | 1915) ) 1455 ye oT Eee ee)
SEN COE geal ye || Bie |) AC eG |p iets) lag ita || esl (Gea)
N. A. Indians:
Male:
Right (857))0) 53) eO. al Shay 10L7- 4: 13.7, TAS Pe CO Sil Eras)
ett (892)... 2. 1243) |) 192.8) |) 30-9: 22.6 | 12.2 es 0.7 || (0.9)
Female:
Right (1,087)).| 12.41) 19.9) 32)— ||| 191-87" 13:3 1.9 0.6 || (3.6)
Weft! (1,054)2 41> 9:4) 18:5 1.33.9 | 22-8. 13.8 es 0.5 || (2.5)
The data, it is plain, do not indicate any material influence of
the sexes on the incidence or development of the fossa on the two
sides of the body, and the exceptional showing of the Chinese cannot
therefore be attributed to sex alone.
The only moderate general influence of sex and side on the hypo-
trochanteric fossa in man can only mean, it seems, that the feature
in the human species is a well ingrained old character.
THE FOSSA IN THE AGED
The extensive collection of the skeletal remains of known Whites
now in the United States National Museum permits of an inquiry
as to the effects of advancing age on the hypotrochanteric fossa. The
material selected for this test consisted of the paired femora of 100
males of 60 years and over. The results are instructive. There is
found a greater mean development of the gluteal ridge in these senile
bones than in the adults of lower ages, and a decidedly greater retro-
gression of the fossa. The latter will be clearly seen in the next table.
Although the above general series includes many elderly individuals,
nevertheless the differences between it and the aged group is very
notable. The “ absent ”’ in the aged are over one third more numerous,
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Hypotrochanteric Fossa in the Aged
Of
Small which
No. of femora . Mod- : Above Pro-
(all paired) None | Trace ee erate Medium medium|nounced fece
groove
Old Males: Percent| Percent] Percent] Percent} Percent} Percent} Percent|| Percent
Righti(TOo) ee 5 5G lO lee 7,= | 4.-
Wettoo)nes. a) 4oe— 4 Gr — a Ok |e |e
ENUIN(@50/0) Vivre oes a I OW malt liao) ml a5) Ona est
All white adult
Mmales(600)%....1 92.G |2On3 | Doar | Ose | res Be 0.2 || (1.8)
2 The majority from elderly subjects.
the “moderate” to “ medium” have markedly diminished, and the
“pronounced ” forms are now wholly absent. The representation of
the fossa in the aged, in comparison to the general adult quantum, 1s
decidedly lessened. The regression of the hollow has therefore con-
tinued throughout adult life, and that in favor of the gluteal ridge,
which kept on developing. Thus by the time senility is reached, the
hypotrochanteric fossa has been largely, and in many cases entirely,
assimilated or replaced by the gluteal ridge.
SIZE OF THE FOSSA
Evangeli-Tramond, it was seen, reported fossae up to 4 to 5 cen-
timeters in length, I centimeter in breadth, and several millimeters
in depth. Measurements of 20 of the largest fossae I encountered
gave the following values:
Length Breadth Depth
Femora (max.) (max.) (max.)
mm
12
10
12.5
Tel
9
9
II
et
II
12
I2
1O
10
10
Io
12
10
IO
9-5
+
3
~~
5
AG olescent peruse casio ie tien
“e ae
ch
“a ve
ae ae
Child, yeh ect aol ge tice:
NColescenltanechee er Cet ene
lum |ntin
|
“ SHI alee RPGks we Suede
Subadult, Aleut iE eBay eae Sault
Adal Reribeny creche cesacrck sey anneal veya
PRE CV DU eet citer cor.
Adolescent WRerurte cy scctres eects aces ts
a @hiowya va wot nkosi cer
Egypt ......-..ssseeeeee
Subadult; Bskimoiese «ctcecmncieien ¢
Adult wleouistanausaqccammeek mci amet
ae
ae
© DWM ONINNNNNN DDADMIN 6
PoOdDKOnNUheH | | and | CON DnaZ
NNW NWWHLHWOWWHWNHHENHNE
|
ay taiciehe rie sey eccrory any.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—-HRDLICKA 45
It is obvious that in some femora the hypotrochanteric fossa is
no negligible feature.
LIFE HISTORY OF THE FOSSA
Thanks to the data it has been possible to present here, it 1s prac-
ticable, for the first time, it seems, in anatomy and anthropology, to
view—grossly at least—the whole ontogeny, the full life history, of
a definite feature of human morphology.
The life history of the hypotrochanteric fossa could be presented
graphically in the form of a curve of long but steady ascension, a
mildly rounded or flat summit, and then a prolonged descent to about
or even below one half of the height of the earlier rise. In other
words, we see first a gradual long rise of the fossa on a phylogenetic
basis toward the condition of a fullfledged character, and then its
slow, irresistible assimilation by a vigorous neighboring feature.
And there are indications—in some instances, or to some degree,
definite proofs—that every single separate organ or part of the human
body, and every human function, too, has its own extensive and highly
interesting life history, a history connected in its origins with human
derivations and antiquity, and ending in advancing regression and
apparent preparation for disappearance; or in seeming tranquility,
stability ; or in some degree of progressiveness toward a greater repre-
sentation. The realization of these conditions opens a vast and in-
tensely attractive field for coming researches. The studies of human
variation and those of the life histories—or perhaps they should
be called existence histories—of the innumerable components of
human structure and functions are the most alluring realms of human
anatomy, physiology, and anthropology of the future.
THE FOSSA IN LOWER MAMMALS
Thanks to the aid of the division of mammals of the United States
National Museum, I have been able to examine for the fossa a series
of femora representing the principal mammalian forms, with the
following results:
Carnivores :
TET COT Pree Rel Tac Tete eS ic psi bay s eirdens cael No hypotrochanteric fossa
RIES ERG fy bea tsectscsys tac a cones isles ah Mere taukAthan cote teyel Sac u = ‘
TaTTdAaeere ee I EN Ge ee cee Siad rel ane CR Meese oa orca on air “ ry
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Insectivores :
Galeapithectis. mince ak See moter et melshn bacetels No hypotrochanteric fossa
a“ “
TE RIMACETIS ee ee ee Poo ee er oe ens nT
Cetaceans :
IMeroungal Was ees satis cers crac om aiibitete mcrae sia <
Rodents :
ELVGTOCHOCHUS tj ein -/4cslo elo eie sca aie helsAsy eles :
RGA VC TM Sst Ree rere er aus aca heh oh ego lon arene ven eohceelC
TTBS tee eee weer POS alGuniinnce enio eieretanaRToIC :
Ungulates :
(Garnie le haesesercrs terre ae eal tite ec Pro eecrare 2
SES OF) MCS CECT AUS!) bts os so rope as: cease ee) soil Pl ebae) ss erweayte ke :
EGOS Cai tee orc oR orci toro Reemetoney ocr st ans
TD OTe ee eke ee eRe EP ene OC Reuse aaa TeeteNce
(AmtelOpe: cached Bee Set bh sre toisdagine let setae olergeieeaie
Marsupials, Edentates, Monotremata, Chiroptera :
IMG GROpusie ec crsicitie ce aiuare ery aetemnat care
PNR GAC OE oe ith de c Teco fue one Poe SHE a NO en CHeVeR ToS en eee ;
DOVE Suv [VILS Poesia Sa tena yah cack act pacaras oi atcha ate ve anotevecetota
Dick bile eke eas dora cca eters ort eio alors xen vorats : s
PECKOPUS Lae incic ese conte laa ater cee hyeiel cromoin eyockistoneas
None of the above mammals below the primates, it is seen, shows
the hollow under consideration, though a fossa or groove mesially
to the generally marginal gluteal ridge, serving possibly to the ad-
ductor muscle, is not uncommon. However, the bones of but one
individual of each kind were examined, and many forms are not
represented at all. Yet the uniformity of the showing, together with
the fact that the gluteal ridge, usually sharp and mostly inconspicuous,
forms in these mammals a portion of the lateral border and thus
leaves no room for the fossa, speak for the probability that the hypo-
trochanteric fossa is essentially or even entirely a primate character.
Furthermore, it has been shown previously in this paper that among
the primates the hollow belongs almost exclusively to the anthropoid
apes, particularly the three large genera, and to man. There is surely
something of interest in this distribution.
SUMMARY
The present study has thrown light on many details of the feature
under consideration, some of which are quite new; but, as usually
happens, while clearing some problems, the inquiry has raised others
which call for further research, particularly that on the musculature
and other soft parts of the region in question.
The points of paramount interest that issue from the work are
in brief these:
NO> I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 47
The hypotrochanteric fossa in man is a well-established phyletic
feature passed on from the common ancestry of man and of the
larger anthropoid apes. It is a feature the old function of which,
apparently, was that of a place for the attachment of the gluteus
maximus; but in man this function has it seems become largely, if
not entirely, obsolete, and in part perhaps changed.
Ontogenetically, the fossa begins to appear from the fifth month
of the intrauterine life; but because of its lost importance, in all
probability, there is much retardation, so that the period during which
it may originate is greatly prolonged, extending over practically the
entire growth period.
Doubtless for the same reason, i.e., the obsolescence of the fossa
in the human femur, there are cases in which the hollow does not
appear at all, and there are many in which it develops only in a more
or less rudimentary form.
And from the same cause, basically, the fossa is not permanent.
On the whole, it reaches its optimum dimensions during adolescence,
but in individual instances even in childhood, it begins to show already
signs of obliteration. This obliteration is due to secondary bone
deposits or growths beginning in and extending from the upper
part of the fossa. It is a slowly progressive osteoblastic process
that finally involves and occludes most or all of the fossa and thus
leads to its partial or total disappearance. This regressive course,
although it may begin early, is essentially a phenomenon of the sub-
adult and adult periods and proceeds to old age.
The active cause of this regression or obliteration is the gluteal
insertion adjacent to the fossa. This insertion in man has become
confined mainly or entirely to the gluteal ridge; and in active in-
dividuals, as the need for a greater insertion grows, new bone that
eventually becomes assimilated into the enlarging gluteal ridge is
deposited, and this deposit is always realized in and at the expense of
the hypotrochanteric fossa. Thus the gluteal ridge during subadult
and adult life may be said to more or less assimilate the fossa.
The hypotrochanteric fossa possesses some interesting physical
characteristics. From the start, when it is a mere imprint on the bone
rather than a hollow, it presents a well-demarked fusiform outline,
with the long axis vertical and always longer than the transverse.
The floor of the fossa, reticulated at first, becomes in general sym-
metrical and fairly smooth later on. In a small proportion of femora
the lower boundary of the fossa is wanting, and the hollow then
forms a marked smooth groove, which descends parallel with the
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
crista aspera and which in instances may be traced to near the middle
of the shaft; the meaning of this condition is not as yet understood.
The mesial border of the fossa constitutes invariably the gluteal
ridge or a part of it, and the lateral border is never conspicuous. The
size of the fossa may reach very considerable proportions; it has
little, if any, relation to the size of the bone. In location the fossa
in man is generally postero-lateral, but in some femora it may be
displaced close to, or rarely even into, the lateral border, as is common
in the larger anthropoids. It has no basic or causative relation to the
subtrochanteric flattening of the femur. It is a formation sui generis,
not a by-product of any of its neighboring structures. It is allied to
other fossae or grooves that serve for muscular insertions and which
can be seen to advantage in other—especially the anthropoid—femora ;
but the hypotrochanteric fossa in man, as seen at its. optimum in the
adolescents, has much more of definiteness and individuality, is much
more of a well evolved and differentiated character, than any of the
other hollows.
Precisely what the fossa in man contains or serves for before its
“ olutealization ” is still uncertain, an appeal to several of the dissect-
ing rooms having thus far proved unsuccessful owing to the dearth
of adolescent cadavers.
As further points of interest, there may be mentioned the follow-
ing: The fossa in a distinguishable form may appear before or after
the first stages of the gluteal ridge; it may remain completely absent
while the ridge develops; and it may persist throughout life without
any marked gluteal ridge or with any degree of this ridge, though the
more developed the ridge, the more likely is its encroachment upon
the fossa. Finally, the hollow is earlier than, as well as wholly inde-
pendent of, the third trochanter, though this may extend over, or even
develop within, the upper-to-middle reaches of the hollow and dimin-
ish its lumen accordingly. Notwithstanding the seeming—and prob-
ably largely real—independence of the fossa and the gluteal ridge,
a certain amount of reciprocity appears to exist during life, between
the fossa and the ridge: where the fossa is absent, the ridge in general
will be found to be more distinct than where the fossa exists.
The incidence of the hypotrochanteric fossa differs in various
human races and other groups, but these differences are neither great
nor always conformable to general racial affinities. Moreover, the
ordinary comparative data, it is now plain, are not pure enough, em-
bracing as they do adults of all ages and not presenting in all the
groups the same age distribution. They are biased, in other words,
by irremediable differences in the important age factor.
NO. I THE HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA—HRDLICKA 49
The incidence and development of the fossa shows also some sex
and side differences, but these are neither very marked nor of great
importance.
The future of the hypotrochanteric fossa in man probably will be,
in general, a gradual further diminution in both its incidence and
development.
Sey An Me tr aM
1M in Wt ee ane ‘i }
— 9
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 24) INOe ti amis
HY POTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, LARGE, ROUGH, MARGINAL
Femora of two gorillas, U.S.N.M. nos. 239,883 and 174,723.
~ a
Re _ ee
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 925 NOe TiaiRE 2
HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, DEEP MARGINAL
Orang, male, U.S.N.M. no. 49,8509.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOUS OZ NO je din eens
MARKED HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, PARTLY MARGINAL, PARTLY (THE
LEFT LARGELY) DISPLACED TO THE ANTERIOR SURFACE
Chimpanzee, U.S.N.M. no. 220,327.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 1925 INOw Wy PE 4,
0
HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, DISPLACED ENTIRELY TO THE ANTERIOR
SURFACE (BILATERALLY)
Orang, male, U,S.N.M. no. 49,860.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOUT 925 NOs 1, Pens
MARKED HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, MARGINAL
Marked acc. adductor fossa (ant.-sup.). Mild pectineal fossa (indistinct on photograph).
Chimpanzee, U.S.N.M. no. 176,226.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOL. ‘92; NO® 1 PEs 7e:
HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA, TYPICAL IN MAN
Left to right: Male, Egypt, older adolescent; U.
adolescent; Lisht, y
Ss
.N.M. no. 268,356—2218, Pachacamac, older
oung adolescent.
"r1g0‘'6cf ‘ou
WN'S'D ‘ojo ‘oeur fSze‘1pe ‘ou “FWN'S'’) ‘eueisinoTy ‘oleur SggS‘EgF ‘ou “FWN'S'A ‘ylAeq ‘IPI 334811 03 YJoT
aD9uV71 ‘vSSO4 DIYSLNVHOOYLOdAH
We) NL COIN) Seals PaKeya SNOILOS1100 SNOANV1IISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
8 “Id
AYSV] ‘oem ‘2Og*soe ‘ow WN Si MoteE yUlog ‘apeumey- fgfe‘Zez “OU “TAN'S'f) “SIOUNIT “eeu Syst 0} FfoT
SSAOOUD-VSSO4 DINSLNVHOONLOdAH
‘ee
L ‘ON ‘26 “1OA SNOILOAI100 SNOSNVITZ0SIN NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS WES HAG IOs a Tabs @
HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA-GROOVES, PRONOUNCED
Left to right: Male, Egypt, Lisht; male. Eskimo, Yukon, U.S.N.M. no. 345.736; male, Lisht.
OL
“Id
zk
‘yySua] ‘xew g°Z1 “yystt ‘opmmBoRyoR |
‘zizc—oSiggz ‘OU “WN'S'A ‘yu, “NeW z°gT “WYSII “OIYO ‘Iz1°6ze ‘OU “JAN'S'() ‘aleq 3 34RBIt 0} 23oT
ac
NSaYGTIHD 4O VYOWNSS NI (YSLNVHOOYL GHIHL) ALISOMYSSNL WALN1ID AO SONINNISAG
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‘chzz~—Sf'ggz ‘ou “JW'N'S'() ‘SowweoRyoR ‘JUsosaTope aasunod fELo‘06z ‘ou
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BE wad SE TONE sag) 210K SNOILO3A1100 SNOANVTISOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
*6fcc—QSE*ggz ‘OU “JWN'S' ‘oRWRoBYyoRg ‘JUsOSe[Ope Japlo ‘seu
‘TEsSoz ‘OU “JWIN'S'() ‘eweolyd “JUsosejopepim “opeut Tgozz—gSf'ggz “OU ‘JW'N'S'() ‘ovmBoRyoRg ‘JUIOSa[OpeplyT :YStt OF Fo]
VSSO4 DIMA LNVHOOYULOdAH NI 3ANOG AO SLISOd3AG AYVAGNOOAS
SNOILO31I100 SNOANVIISOSINW NVINOSHLIWS
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE mo 2h NOt PEssts)
SECONDARY DEPOSITS OF BONE IN HYPOTROCHANTERIC FOSSA; FROM
LEFT TO RIGHT—TRACES, MODERATE, PRONOUNCED DEPOSITS
Left to right: Young adolescent, Pachacamac, U.S.N.M. no. 268,356; older adoles-
cent, Pachacamac, U.S.N.M. no. 268,356; young adolescent, Pachacamac, U.S.N.M: no.
268,356—2230.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
MARGINAL FOSSA
Left to right: Orang, male, U.S.N.M. no. 49,859;
U.S.N.M. no. 339,235.
VOL 92, NON 1) BEl4
midadolescent, Eskimo, Nunivak,
lew 2
me . oe: 7 i . :
eri ete au
. a , 1 ° py 7 ' a ff? on)
~ >. Set yee gn te x ;
2
Tite
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 2
NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS FROM
NORTHERN ASIA
(WitH ONE PLATE)
BY
ALAN MOZLEY
Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholar, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3253)
GITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 8, 1934 :
hse
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 5. A.
NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS FROM
NORTHERN ASIA
By ALAN MOZLEY
Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholar, Smithsonian Institution
(WitTH ONE PLATE)
During the years 1932 and 1933 a journey was made through cer-
tain parts of Siberia and northern Kazakstan, under the grant of the
Walter Rathbone Bacon Scholarship * of the Smithsonian Institution.
The object of this expedition was to investigate the molluscan fauna
of the region, and in the course of working up the material collected,
several forms have been discovered which appear to be undescribed. A
report on the fauna as a whole will appear at a later date, but in the
meantime it appears to be desirable to place on record a brief descrip-
tion of the new forms, which is given below.
VALVATA ANTIQUILINA, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 4
Shell of moderate size for members of this genus, length 6.4 mm,
broadly conical ; surface smooth, with minute crowded lines of growth ;
whorls four and seven-eighths, convex, very slightly flattened ; aperture
subcircular, very slightly angulated along the superior margin, lip con-
tinuous, attached to the preceding whorl for about 0.6 mm. The dimen-
sions of the type are as follows: Length 6.4 mm, greater diameter
5.9 mm, lesser diameter 5.2 mm, aperture length 3.1 mm, aperture
width 2.5 mm.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 469212, collected at Lake Khomotenoye, Aj-
Bulat drainage basin, Siberia. This is approximately 370 kilometers
southeast of Omsk.
This species has some resemblance to both V. piscinalis (Muller),
and V’. antiqua Morris, and in many respects is intermediate between
these two species. It differs from most forms of I’. piscinalis in having
‘Created through a bequest to the Institution by Mrs. Virginia Purdy Bacon
“to be used in establishing a traveling scholarship, to be called the Walter Rath-
bone Bacon scholarship for the study of the fauna of countries other than the
United States of America.”
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 2
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
the shell as a whole more solidly built, the spire more bluntly conical,
and the whorls less broadly rounded, those in the new species being a
little flattened, and turning sharply into the suture. V’. antiquilina
differs from V’. antiqua Morris (pl. 1, fig. 5) in the proportions of the
shell (see measurements below), the new form being shghtly more
broadly built, in having the suture a little deeper, and in the whorls
being regularly rounded and slightly flattened, rather than rounded and
projecting downward as in |’. antiqua.
No living specimens were found, all the shells being empty and
bleached. Apparently this species lived in Lake Khomotenoye at some
former time when the water level stood considerably higher than at
present.
Measurements of the Shells of Valvata antiquilina, n. sp., from the Shore of
Lake Khomotenoye, Siberia
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
No. of whorls Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm
4 3/4 6.4 6.0 5.5 277 25
4 3/4 6.0 5.1 4.7 2.8 2.4
4 5/8 iy) 4.8 4.6 212 2
4 5/8 5.5 4.9 4.7 2.4 2.4
Av 1/2 5.6 5.4 4.8 2.5 2.4
4 1/2 5.4 4.9 4.7 2.5 2.3
4 1/2 5.3 4.8 4.5 27. 2.1
4 1/4 5.3 4.8 4.5 2.6 1.9
4 1/4 4.7 4.5 4.1 1.9 1.8
4 1/8 4.9 5.1 4.6 27, 2.2
Measurements of the Shells of Valvata antiqua Morris from Grays, Essex
(Type Locality )
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
No. of whorls Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm
47/8 73 6.1 hey 2.8 2.6
47/8 6.4 5.2 4.5 2.8 2.3
4 3/4 6.3 Bas 5.0 2.8 2.3
4 5/8 0.4 6.0 5.6 3.2 2.9
4 5/8 6.3 5.2 4.9 2.4 2.3
LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS SARIDALENSIS, n. subsp.
Plate a, figs 2
Shell of moderate size, length 23.9 mm, elongate, and much nar-
rower in proportion to the length than in the usual forms of palustris;
light horn-colored, thin, surface smooth, minutely wrinkled, lines of
growth not prominent, crossed by impressed spiral lines; whorls
INO 2 NEW MOLLUSKS FROM ASIA—MOZLEY 3
seven and one-half, regularly convex ; spire long and narrow, more than
half the length of the shell ; suture moderately deep ; aperture elongate-
elliptical ; outer lip gently rounded, periphery sharp and thin ; columella
somewhat twisted ; umbilical chink a minute elongated slit.
Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 469734. It comes from a small, somewhat
saline lake on the Steppe Sari Dala, 15 kilometers southwest of Pavlo-
dar, northern Kazakstan.
This species is known only from the type locality, which is about
400 kilometers southeast of Omsk, and 600 kilometers north of Lake
Balkhash. Some idea of the geographical position may be given by
stating that Pavlodar is situated approximately midway between Delhi,
British India, and the Arctic Ocean.
Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris saridalensis, n. subsp., from the
Steppe Sari Dala 15 Kilometers Southwest of Pavlodar, Kazakstan
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm
25.7 0.5 9.0 10.7 5.4
25.0 9.0 8.7 10.4 5.0
24.0 9.9 9.1 10.8 5.9
24.8 8.9 8.2 0.5 4.8
24.7 0.4 8.6 10.3 5.5
24.5 9.5 8.4 9.9 4.9
24.2 0.5 8.8 10.0 5.6
24.1 9.8 9.2 11.0 5.9
23.9 9.7 8.8 10.4 5.8
23.9 9.5 8.9 TOYA 5.3
23.9 9.5 8.8 10.2 5.5
Ber 8.5 ei 9.5 5.0
21.0 7.9 7.4 8.7 5.1
19.0 7.4 ae. 7.7 4.0
18.0 Tei Gaal 8.0 4.7
LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS KAZAKENSIS, n. subsp.
Plate 1, fig. 7
This resembles L. palustris saridalensis but has eight whorls, which
are somewhat shouldered; the suture is very deeply impressed, the
lower side of the whorls slopes into the suture in a plane not far from
the vertical, the superior margin of each whorl, however, while at first
gently curved, finally turns abruptly into the suture; the spire is very
long, forming nearly three-fifths of the length of the shell as a whole,
and has a somewhat turreted appearance.
Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 470457, from a small dry lake bottom near the
village of Novo Troetskaya, northern Kazakstan.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris kazakensis, n. subsp., from near
Novo Troetskaya, Kazakstan
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm
Type 30.0 Tey, 10.9 T1253 7.4
26.5 10.9 10.4 Tiles 6.3
25.7 10.7 9.9 11.0 6.5
25.1 9.9 10.0 11.3 6.6
24.9 10.5 9.8 10.8 6.3
24.8 10.2 0.5 10.5 Be
24.6 10.2 9.6 10.4 6.1
23.8 9.9 9.0 10.4 5.9
23.4 10.0 9.2 9.8 6.3
21.2 8.9 8.5 8.9 G3
20.4 8.5 7.8 78 4.8
LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS DRAVERTI, n. subsp.
Plate 1, fe. 0
Shell somewhat resembling that of L. palustris kazakensis but having
a more broadly conical spire ; whorls seven and a half, convex, gently
rounded, turning gradually into the suture, which is deep; aperture
small and subovate, oval by comparison with that of kazakensis,
columella not twisted, umbilical chink of large size.
Type—uvU.S.N.M. no. 469681, from the River Om, near Omsk,
Siberia.
This species is known only from the type locality. Collected by
Prof. Pierre Dravert, after whom it is named.
Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris draverti, n. subsp., from the
River Om, near Omsk, Siberia
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
Length diameter diameter length width
mm mn mm mm mm
Type 19.6 8.8 8.2 7, 4.8
19.2 9.1 8.7 8.9 5.4
18.5 8.4 7.60 TG 4.6
17.9 9.2 8.1 8.3 5.5
L727, 8.3 7.0 7.8 4.8
16.3 7-9 Fax 73 4.4
16.0 8.2 7.4 7.5 4.7
15.8 7.8 Fae. FD 4.7
15.2 7.4 6.8 7.0 4.4
14.1 7.0 6.4 6.2 Sez.
13.4 7.0 0.3 6.0 3.5
NO.
to
NEW MOLLUSKS FROM ASIA——-MOZLEY 5
LYMNAEA (GALBA) PALUSTRIS BOLOTENSIS, n. subsp.
Plate 1, fig. 3
Shell somewhat smaller than in all the subspecies here described
(length 22.7 mm) but of greater thickness; the general appearance
somewhat barrel-shaped in comparison with kazakensis and the others,
as a result of the shallowness of the suture, and the relatively large size
of the last three whorls; the aperture is small and roundly auriform,
the columella thin and only slightly twisted, and the outer lip thin,
sharp and without any tendency toward flaring.
Type—U.S.N.M. no. 469821, from flooded area between the
Rivers Chaganak and Chederti, Djarla-Ul drainage basin, northern
Kazakstan.
Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea palustris bolotensis, n. subsp., from
several localities in Kazakstan
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm Locality
Type 22.7 8.9 8.5 8.1 5.4 Flooded area between the
Rivers Chederti and
Chaganak.
21.4 9.1 8.7 0.3 6.8 Same.
21.4 8.4 7.0 0.5 5.4 River Chaganak.
21K 8.9 8.1 8.7 5.7. Small lake (No. 6) near
Novo Troetskaya.
2iet 8.5 8.3 8.4 5.3 Same.
20.8 9.0 8.1 8.7 5.9 River Chaganak.
20.7 8.1 7.8 8.8 4.8 Lake No. 6, as above.
20.4 8.1 7.8 7.6 alae oarn es
20.4 8.1 ay 8.6 5.3 Chederti-Chaganak, as
above.
20.1 8.4 AY, 8.7 5.6 River Chaganak.
20.1 8.3 7.9 8.1 5-30) Same:
10.5 8.0 7.4 8.2 53) Saine:
18.5 8.5 7.0 8.8 5.2 Same.
17.6 7.6 7X 8.7 4.8 Chederti-Chaganak, as
above.
13.6 6.9 6.5 7.0 Al) yoame:
The four subspecies of Lymnaea palustris here described are all
closely similar, but in any moderately large series it is possible to dis-
tinguish the different forms without difficulty. Lymnaea palustris
saridalensis is characterized by the tall spire, slightly convex whorls,
and moderately impressed suture ; kazakensis is distinguished by even
higher spire, slightly convex whorls turning sharply into a deep suture ;
draverti by its shorter and broader, though still acute, spire, more con-
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
vex whorls, and smaller subovate aperture and very gently curved
columella; while bolotensis has a shorter spire with fat whorls, and
shallower suture.
LYMNAEA (RADIX) ZAZURNENSIS, n. sp.
Plate 1; fig. 2
Shell of fairly large size, length 18.5 mm, broad relative to the
length, horn-colored ; surface bright, glossy, crossed by many regularly
spaced lines of growth which give the shell a slightly ribbed appear-
ance, and by many microscopic spiral impressed lines ; whorls five, con-
vex, protruding and well rounded in all cases ; the body whorl nearly
semicircular in outline on the left side; having a slightly shouldered
appearance at the junction with the preceding whorl, but actually
having a small V-shaped depression intervening and continuing around
the shell for at least one whorl above the aperture; aperture ovate-
ellipsoidal; outer lip thin, sharp; inner lip gradually curving, colu-
mella nearly flat, not twisted, spreading out to some extent over the
umbilical region, which is seen from the side and below to be fairly
wide open.
Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 470709, collected at Lake Zazurnia, in the
mountain range known as Khamar Daban, eastern shore of Lake
Baikal. The species is known only from the type locality.
Measurements of the Shells of Lymnaea sasurnensis from Lake Zazurnia,
Khamar Daban, Siberia
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm
Type 18.9 12.5 11.0 11.9 ZO
18.8 13:3 ite ley) 7.8
18.5 12.8 10.9 12.4 7.8
18.2 12.4 Tiber E22 TG,
18.2 12.4 10.1 12.0 7.8
17.2 12.1 10.3 LD. 1 TT,
16.6 11.8 8.9 Tne 7.0
15.9 II.1 0.9 Ln, 7.9
15:2 10.0 8.8 10.1 6.3
PLANORBIS (SPIRALINA) JOHANSENI, n. sp.
Plates, fos 8
Shell of moderate size, greater diameter 7.5 mm, discoidal, very thin
(height 1.2 mm) slightly concave above and below, closely resembling
P. compressus ; surface bright and shining, with many fine but distinct
NO. 2 NEW MOLLUSKS FROM ASTA—MOZLEY 7
lines of growth; whorls five and a quarter, gradually increasing in
size, carinate on the upper side; the upper side of the carina of all or
nearly all the whorls being visible on the dorsal side of the shell;
aperture inclined and oblique, ellipsoidal ; lip sharp and thin.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 470515, collected at Kotur Kulb near Boro-
voye, Kazakstan.
The dimensions of the type are as follows: Height 1.2 mm, greater
diameter 7.4 mm, lesser diameter 6.6 mm, aperture height 1.0 mm,
aperture width 1.8 mm.
Named after Mr. Bodo Johansen, of Tomsk, who has made a study
of the fresh-water mollusks of that neighborhood.
PHYSA SARTLANDINENSIS, n. sp.
Plate 1, fig. 6
Shell resembling that of Physa fontinalis but of larger size, length
12.6 mm; the aperture shorter than in that species and the spire much
higher and more conspicuous; the suture more deeply impressed ;
whorls four and three-quarters, surface smooth, lines of growth micro-
scopic, crossed by larger, regular, impressed spiral lines.
Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 469613, collected in Lake Sartlan, Barabinsk
Steppe, Siberia. It is known only from the type locality.
In this new species the length of the aperture is approximately two-
thirds of the length of the entire shell, while in P. fontinalis it is three-
quarters of the shell length.
Measurements of the Shells of Physa sartlandinensis from Lake Sartlan, Siberia
Greater Lesser Aperture Aperture
Length diameter diameter length width
mm mm mm mm mm
Type 12.6 a 5.7 8.7 4.1
11.4 6.2 a2 8.0 3.4
10.6 6.0 4.8 7.4 3.1
10.3 5.4 4.6 6.4 2.9
10.2 5.3 4.6 6.6 3.2
0.7 53 4.0 6.4 3.0
9.5 4.9 4.1 5.6 2.3
9.3 5.4 5.7 5.9 2.8
0.2 5.7 4.4 6.0 2.2
9.1 5.3 4.0 6.1 3.0
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Wolls ie ios 745 [be 4
NEW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSKS FROM NORTHERN ASIA
1. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris saridalensis. 6. Physa sartlandinensis.
2. Lymnaea (Radix) zazurnensis. 7. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris kazakensis.
3. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris bolotensis. 8. Planorbis (Spiralina) johansent.
4. Valvata antiquilina. 9. Lymnaea (Galba) palustris draverti.
5. Valvata antiqua Morris.
oy,
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 3
Krthur jFund
Prenat RESPONSES OF THEVALG:?
CHEORELEA VULGARIS 1
UETRAVIOLET RAYS
(WitH THREE PLATES)
BY
FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3254)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 6, 1934
The Lord Galtimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Arthur Fund
LETHAL RESPONSE OF THE ALGA CHLORELLA
VULGARISHLO© ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
By FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(Wirn THREE PLATES)
INTRODUCTION
In a previous paper Meier (1932) reported a quantitative study
of the lethal effect of the wave lengths 3022, 2967, 2894, 2804,
2753, 2699, 2652, and 2536 A on the unicellular green alga Chlorella
vulgaris. Wave lengths longer than 3022 A, which is the approximate
short-wave limit of ultraviolet irradiation in nature—that is, the wave
lengths 3130, 3341, and 3650 A—had no lethal effect on the green
cells, although two of them, 3130 and 3650 A, were of greater in-
tensity than the shorter lethal ones.
The present paper gives the results of further study on the lethal
response of the alga Chlorella vulgaris to the same ultraviolet wave
lengths with special reference to the radiotoxic spectral sensitivity
and the radiotoxic virulence.
This work was done with the cooperation of Dr. E. D. McAlister,
of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, who carried out the
spectroscopic manipulations and physical measurements.
I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. C. G. Abbot, Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, for his assistance in the interpretation
of the results of these experiments and for suggesting the new terms
here used. I am also grateful to Dr. E. S. Johnston, Assistant Director
of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, for his help in the ac-
complishment of this piece of research.
RECENT INVESTIGATIONS
Striking work requiring nice technique on the lethal action of ultra-
violet irradiation on certain living Protozoa has been done recently
by the Cancer Research Laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania.
‘This paper reports investigations made under a grant from the National
Research Council to the author as National Research Fellow in the Biological
Sciences.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 3
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The micro-moving-pictures and microphotographs made by Franklin,
Allen, and McDonald (1933) show how ultraviolet irradiation below
2900 A causes immediate cessation of all motion of the unicellular
organisms followed by marked internal changes and in some cases a
complete breakdown of the cellular structure. Swann and del Rosario
(1932) noted that the death rate of the cells was not related to the
intensity of the light nor to the number of the cells present, but to
the length of exposure. Furthermore, cells continued to die even after
the light was removed. In the work here reported it was similarly
observed with algae that certain ultraviolet rays injured the cells but
that death followed some time later. Swann and del Rosario found
that the total number of Euglena cells that died subsequently as the
result of irradiation was proportional to the total quantity of radiant
energy in question, within the limits of intensity and concentration
investigated.
The algal cells did not begin to die as soon after irradiation as
did the Euglena cells. This may be due to a difference in the irradia-
tion intensity. Tanner and Ryder (1923) found in their irradiation
experiments that pigmented yeasts are more resistant than white
yeasts and also that yeasts live a little longer than bacteria, a fact
that they explain as due to the difference in size.
The work of Beauverie and Cornet (1929) on the leaf and bud
of Elodea canadensis shows that the chloroplastids in the cell with-
stood continued irradiation much better than did the cytoplasm,
mitochondries, and chondriocontes.
Noethling and Rochlin (1931) also irradiated Elodea with ultra-
violet rays less than 3000 A in wave length and found a cessation
of plasma streaming, also the appearance of oxalate crystals, and
necrosis.
Gibbs (1926) noted that a latent period occurred before death in
irradiated filaments of Spirogyra nitida aftinis. The limits of the toxic
action were the wave lengths 3126 and 2378 A. The chloroplasts were
observed to clump characteristically, owing to the great difference in
intensity of radiation reaching the “ near” and “far” sides of the
filament. The behavior of the filaments was variable. Some died
while apparently perfectly normal in appearance. Coagulation of the
protoplasm was noted, also a brown precipitate that exhibited Brown-
lan movement.
Martin and Westbrook (1930) .reported browning of the cells of
the leaves of Voandzeia, Pelargonium, and other plants by ultra-
violet irradiation. The browning was compared to the reddening or
NO. 3 RESPONSE OF ALGAE TO ULTRAVIOLET—-MEIER 3
erythema and subsequent browning induced by ultraviolet in the
human skin. Generally there is a latent period from 3 to 24 hours’
duration before erythema makes itself evident. Martin and West-
brook define as the latent period the time elapsing between the irra-
“latent
period ” is in a sense comparable with its application to the appear-
diation and the visible culmination in browning. The term
ance during development of the latent image on a photographic plate.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The technique, methods, and apparatus used in this work are similar
to those described for the exposure of the second plate of Chlorella
vulgaris by Meier (1932) and by Brackett and McAlister (1932).
In August 1932 three separate portions of each of 10 plates cov-
ered with Detmer 4-agar 1.5 percent about 4 to 5 mm thick, the entire
surfaces of which were uniformly green with cells of Chlorella
vulgaris, were irradiated in the quartz spectrograph using a quartz
mercury lamp as the source. Data regarding their inoculation and
irradiation dates together with the exposure times are listed in
table 1. In April 1933 nine additional plates (plates 14 to 17 and
19 to 23) that had been prepared in a similar fashion were also
irradiated as noted in table 2. The intensity data are given in table 3.
EFFECT OF ULTRAVIOLET RAYS ON AGAR PLATES
Two blank agar plates (plates 18 and 24) that had been made at the
same time as plates 14 to 17 and 1g to 23 and left under similar
conditions but not inoculated with algae were also irradiated in April
1933. Separate portions of plate 18 were irradiated for 64, 16, and
32 minutes, and separate portions of plate 24 were irradiated for 16,
4, and 8 minutes. When the plates were finally examined 2 months
after inoculation, there was no evidence of any differentiated regions.
On June 24 a freshly inoculated Detmer § solution of Chlorella
vulgaris was poured over plate 18, and after a short interval the
excess was removed. The plate was then placed in a north window.
Within 3 weeks’ time the plate was covered with a uniform green
growth of the algal cells.
This experiment seems to indicate that the wave lengths which
prove lethal to the green cells of the algae do not affect the culture
medium which covers the glass plate in any way that will accelerate
or retard the subsequent growth of the algae.
VOL. 92
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
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NO. 3 RESPONSE OF ALGAE TO ULTRAVIOLET—MEIER
TABLE 2.—Irradiation Data for Second Experiment
F Alas Irradiation time,
Plate Inoculation date Irradiation date minutes
14 January 10, 1933 April 17, 1933 8
2
4
15 December 3, 1932 April 17, 1933 16
4
8
16 January 10, 1933 April 18, 1933 32
8
16
17 January 10, 1933 April 18, 1933 64
16
32
18 Uninoculated April 18, 1933 64
16
a2
19 January 10, 1933 April 18, 1933 8
2
4
20 December 3, 1932 April 18, 1933 16
4
8
21 November 3, 1932 April 19, 1933 64
2
32
~)
22 January 10, 1933 April 19, 1033
oOo
NI 4
=)
At W& NH
23 January 10, 1033 April 19, 1933
24 Uninoculated April 19, 1933
—
oe
TABLE 3.—Intensity Data
August 23, 1932 April 17, 1933
Plates I-13; Plates 14-24,
intensity: intensity:
A ergs/sec. cm? ergs/sec. cm?
2536 less than 100 150
2652 2,000 1,960
2609 680 640
2753 570 540
2804 1,930 1,840
2804 930 930
2925 450 440
2067 2,740 2,450
3022 5,700 5,300
3130 12,500 11,800
3340 1,940 1,720
3650 28,500 25,000
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
RESUETS
The results of irradiating the 10 plates of the first series with
ultraviolet rays are shown in table 1. The regions of decolorized cells
that appeared in the green plates where the wave lengths of ultra-
violet proved to be lethal or radiotoxic are tabulated with the initial
dates of their appearances. The experiment was brought to an end
October 30, an arbitrary date, 2 months after the irradiation date,
but the plates remained in good condition until November 30 and
showed no further marked differences in appearance. The total
number of radiotoxic regions for each exposure was listed at this
time. See plates 2 and 3.
The results of the second experiment, in which 11 plates including
the uninoculated agar plates were irradiated, are given in table 4. The
radiotoxicity as shown by the colorless algal regions which were
present on the plates June 24, 1933, 2 months after the irradiation
date, is indicated here with the exposure times. (See pl. 1.)
As indicated in tables 1 and 2, the inoculations were made from
2 to 5 months previous to the dates of irradiation. This difference
in the age of the cultures had no apparent effect on the response
of the algae to the ultraviolet irradiation.
THE LETHAL RADIOTOXIC THRESHOLD
A study of tables 1 and 4 shows that the lethal radiotoxic threshold,
or minimum amount of radiotoxicity required to produce lethal effect,
for wave lengths 2652 and 2804 A lies between 100 and 120 seconds
and probably midway between 105 and 120 seconds (the 100-second
exposure being with light of greater intensity) for intensities 1,960
and 1,840 ergs/sec. cm? respectively. If it is assumed that the radio-
toxic effect is proportional to the intensity and the duration of ir-
radiation, then for 1,000 ergs/sec. cm? the exposures required for
26052 and 2804 A may be set as 1.96X 112=220 seconds and 1.84 x
112=206 seconds respectively. For 2699 and 2753 A, 8 minutes or 480
seconds did not always suffice for killing the cells but usually did, so
it is near the threshold. Then for 1,000 ergs/sec. cm’, the required
time would be 0.64 x 480= 307 seconds and 0.54 x 480=259 seconds.
Also, 2894 and 2967 A occur once or twice at 480 seconds. Hence
for 1,000 ergs/sec. cm’, the required time would be 0.93 x 480=446
seconds and 2.45 x 480=1,176 seconds. Also, injury at 2925 and
3022 A first appears at 1,920 seconds and then not always, therefore
similarly we find required times of 0.44 1,920=845 seconds and
IN
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5.3 X1,920=10,176 seconds. From the above rough determinations
and the computation of the lethal factors for each wave length as
compared with 3022 A, table 5 has been compiled and the smooth
curve in figure 1 has been drawn.
TaBLE 5.—Lethal Radiotoxic Threshold and Radiotoxic Spectral Sensitivity
(Based on Table 4)
Lethal radiotoxic threshold
For given For 1000 Radiotoxic
Intensity intensity ergs/sec. cm? spectral Smooth
A ergs/sec. cm? sec. sec. sensitivity curve
2652 1960 112 220 46.3 45
2609 640 480 307 33-0 43
2753 540 480 259 39.3 38
2804 1840 112 206 48.9 34
2804 930 480 446 22.8 22
2925 440 1920 845 12.0 16
2067 2450 480 1176 8.7
3022 5300 1920 10176 ie I
RADIOTOXIC SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY AND RADIOTOXIC VIRULENCE
The lethal response of the algae to the ultraviolet rays may be
considered from two points of view, as to the radiotoxic spectral
sensitivity and the radiotoxic virulence. The term “ radiotoxic spectral
sensitivity” relates to the certainty of the lethal action, while the
term “ radiotoxic virulence”? may be used to describe the quickness
of the attack. To make the matter clearer by analogy, let the behavior
of algae with respect to three different ultraviolet rays be compared
to the behavior of a human being toward three poisons, namely,
radium in watch-face paint, cyanide of potassium, and rattlesnake
venom.
With respect to sensitivity, each one of the three poisons is fatal
if administered in a sufficient dose. Probably in order of minimum
lethal dosage or sensitivity, they would rank: radium, cyanide,
snake venom. But in order of toxic virulence, or the time required
for lethal effect, they would rank very differently, probably: cyanide,
snake venom, radium.
Applying this analogy to the selected ultraviolet rays, the deter-
mination of the radiotoxic spectral sensitivity, that is, the relative
radiotoxicity of rays of different wave lengths when applied with
equal intensity and duration, has been measured as described in
the preceding section. The determinations for each of the eight ultra-
violet rays when plotted against wave lengths gives a curve of radio-
toxic spectral sensitivity. (See table 5 and fig. 1.)
NOS RESPONSE OF ALGAE TO ULTRAVIOLET—-MEIER 9
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
2500 2600 27100 2800 2900 3000 3100
Fic. 1—Radiotoxic spectral sensitivity of Chlorella vulgaris to ultraviolet rays.
The abscissae are wave lengths in angstroms. The ordinates are relative lethal
effectiveness in arbitrary units. Black line, smooth curve; dash line, actual
values; dot line, curve obtained by Meier (1932).
2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100
Fic. 2—Radiotoxic virulence determined from Chlorella vulgaris. The ab-
scissae are wave lengths in angstroms. The ordinates are radiotoxic virulence in
arbitrary units.
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Applying the analogy to the consideration of radiotoxic virulence,
the determination of the speed with which the toxic doses of the
several rays produce lethal effects has been ‘made by computing
the brevity of time required to produce lethal effect for a standard
radiotoxic quotum exceeding the lethal radiotoxic threshold.
The radiotoxic quotum is the amount of radiotoxicity applied, and
it is apparently proportional (1) to the time during which the algae
are exposed to it, (2) to the intensity of the ray, and (3) to the
radiotoxic spectral sensitivity. The radiotoxic virulence is evidently
inversely proportional (1) to the radiotoxic quotum applied and (2)
to the time required to produce a toxic effect. The determination has
been made for eight ultraviolet rays, and as plotted against wave
length gives a curve of radiotoxic virulence (the reciprocal of the
product of the radiotoxie quotum for each ray by the time’ of re-
sponse). (See table 6 and fig. 2.)
DISCUSSION
The curve in figure 1 does not disagree beyond reasonable error
with the one shown in figure 1 of Meier (1932), although the earlier
curve was determined by a different method. It is questionable
whether the wave length for the maximum radiotoxic effect has yet
been determined, since effects at 2600 A and shorter wave lengths
have not been sufficiently studied in these experiments. [Experi-
ments including regions 2300 to 2700 A should be made for the pur-
pose of finding further information on this subject. Additional
experiments should also be performed to check the assumption made
that the radiotoxic effect is proportional to the intensity of irradiation
and to the time of irradiation jointly. It is also possible that weaker
irradiations would produce a stimulation of growth which is not
apparent in these plates because of the luxuriant green growth
covering the entire surface of each culture before irradiation. Further
experiments are being planned to investigate this point.
SUMMARY
The radiotoxic spectral sensitivity has been determined for eight
wave lengths in the ultraviolet ranging from 2652 to 3022 A as applied
to a unicellular green alga, Chlorella vulgaris. Although all the rays
from 2652 to 3022 A killed the algae eventually, death ensued much
more quickly in some of the regions than in others. The radiotoxic
virulence or speed of effectiveness of each lethal ray in killing the
algal cells for a radiotoxic quotum at eight wave lengths ranging from
2652 to 3022 A has been calculated.
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12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
LITBRATURE CITED
BEAUVERIE, J., and Cornet, P.
1929. Action des rayons ultra-violets sur la structure cellulaire dans la
feuille et le bourgeon d’Elodea canadensis. C. R. Soc. Biol., Tome
102, PP. 775-777-
Brackett, F. S., and McA ister, E. D.
1932. A spectrophotometric development for biological and photochemical
investigations. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 12, pp. 1-7.
FRANKLIN, RACHEL, ALLEN, A. J., and McDonatp, ELtice.
1933. Some micro-moving-pictures showing the lethal effects of ultra-
violet radiation on certain living Protozoa. Bull. Amer. Phys.
Soc., vol. 8, no. 2, p. 5.
Gisss, R. D.
1926. The action of ultra-violet light on Spirogyra. Proc. and Trans.
Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. 20, pp. 419-425.
Martin, M. T., and WestBroox, M. A.
1930. Influence of ultra-violet radiation upon some plant cells. Journ.
Exper. Biol., vol. 7, pp. 293-307.
Meter, FLORENCE E.
1932. Lethal action of ultra-violet light on a unicellular green alga.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 87, no. 10, pp. I-II.
NoETHLING, W., and Rocu iin, E.
1931. Uber Photodinese im Kurzwelligen Ultraviolet. Planta, vol. 14,
pp. 112-131.
Swann, W. F. G., and pet Rosario, C.
1932. The effect of certain monochromatic ultra-violet radiation on Euglena
cells. Journ. Franklin Inst., vol. 213, pp. 549-560.
TANNER, FRED W., and RypeEr, EArt.
1923. Action of ultraviolet light on yeast-like fungi. II. Bot. Gaz., vol. 75.
PP. 309-317.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS Woks Ee INhole sha Lethe.
NX oO Tt TiOonR WN O
DD PO Onon BQ t
CORO S00 Onno O — ™)
NI QI ANA O&O ~ ”)
AN ALGAL SPECTROGRAM, OBTAINED BY EXPOSING PLATE 23 OF
CHLORELLA VULGARIS TO ULTRAVIOLET RAYS FOR 4440 SECONDS, SUPER-
IMPOSED ON A DIAGRAM OF THE INTENSITIES OF THE WAVE LENGTHS.
The abscissae are wave lengths in angstroms. The ordinates are intensities in
ergs/sec.cm?”.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92, NO. 3, PL. 2
IRRADIATION
TIME IN TIME AFTER IRRADIATION
SECONDS 8 DAYS
G@=100
b= Ne
C-600
12 DAYS
| 2652A 2894A
GRADUAL APPEARANCE OF RADIOTOXIC REGIONS IN PLATE 5 OF CHLORELLA
VULGARIS AFTER EXPOSURE OF 600 SECONDS TO ULTRAVIOLET RAYS.
|
No radiotoxic effect was noted for exposures of 100 seconds and 16 seconds.
|
|
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOETI2NOm cri S
IRRADIATION
TIME IN TIME AFTER IRRADIATION
SECONDS 9 DAYS
G= GOO
6 =- 100
C- 3600
24 DAYS
RADIOTOXIC REGIONS IN PEATE 1 OF CHLORELLA VULGARIS AFTER
EXPOSURES OF 600. SECONDS AND 3600 SECONDS TO ULTRAVIOLET RAYS.
No radiotoxicity was noted for the exposure of roo seconds.
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REPRODUCTION OF PAGE 1 OF THE NEWLY DISCOVERED MANUSCRIPT
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 4
A NEW ORIGINAL VERSION OF BOSCANA’S HISTORICAL
ACCOUNT OF THE SAN JUAN CAPISTRANO INDIANS
OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
(WitH Two PLates)
BY
JOHN P. HARRINGTON
Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology
(PUBLICATION 3255)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JUNE 27, 1934
The Lord Baltimore Prees
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
A NEW ORIGINAL VERSION OF BOSCANA’S HISTORI-
CAL ACCOUNT OF THE SAN JUAN CAPISTRANO
INDIANS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
By JOHN P. HARRINGTON,
Ethnologist, Bureau of American Ethnology
(WitH Two PLates)
When I first started to study the California Indians, I looked about
to see what had been recorded concerning them in early times, that is,
during the period of Spanish occupation. I found that only one ac-
count of California Indians, or indeed of Indians of the Southwest,
worthy of being called an ethnological treatise had survived from that
period, namely Father Jeronimo Boscana’s ‘“‘ Chinigchinich ”, which
tells in several penetrating but all too short chapters of the life of the
Indians of the San Juan Capistrano Mission on the coast of southern
California. There was comparatively rich Spanish archival material
to be found, consisting of chronicles of voyages and land expeditions,
church records, etc., but no other good description of a tribe and its
customs, although certain writings on Lower California Indians con-
stituted the nearest second to the Boscana. And the Boscana treatise
was accessible only in a rather inadequate English translation published
by Alfred Robinson as an appendix to his Life in California.’ Persis-
tent attempts made in this country and abroad toward locating the all-
important Spanish original all resulted in failure. It was therefore a
gala day in my life, unparalleled by any other, when I recently dis-
covered the long lost Boscana original.
The manuscript proves to be even more valuable than was expected,
since it is an 1822 variant version of the Historical Account that Rob-
inson translated, each version containing certain important data that
the other omits. It consists of 58 octavo pages written in a rather neat
* Chinigchinich: a historical account of the origin, customs, and traditions
of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta
California; called the Acagchemem nation ..., by the Reverend Father Friar
Geronimo Boscana... New York, 1846. For a reprint of this work see
Boscana, Geronimo, 1776-1831, Chinigchinich (Chi-fii’ch-fiich), a revised and
annotated version of Alfred Robinson’s translation of Father Gerénimo Bos-
cana’s historical account, edited by Phil Townsend Hanna, annotations by John P.
Harrington, foreword by Frederick Webb Hodge, Santa Ana, Calif., 1033.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92, No. 4
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
hand, the hand already familiar to me through working with the church
records at San Juan Capistrano. An introduction, written in very
fervent tone, is followed by 15 chapters devoted respectively to the
subjects of origin, creation tradition, history of the traditional leaders
Ouiot and Chinigchinix, instruction of children, marriage, general
manner of life, chieftainship, description of the native temples, feasts
and dances, calendar, extravagancies, burials and funerals, beliefs of
immortality, origin of the inhabitants of San Juan Capistrano Mission,
and list with etymologies of 15 rancherias inhabited by these Indians.
A halftone reproduction of page 1 of the manuscript is shown in
plate 1 (frontispiece).
Boscana was born May 23, 1776, at the country town of Llumayor
on the island of Mallorca off the coast of eastern Spain. His native
tongue was, of course, the Catalonian language, very different
from Spanish. He was ordained at a Franciscan college at Palma,
capital of the island, and was sent as a missionary to Mexico, and
thence to Alta California, now the California of Americans. He was
missionary at San Juan Capistrano from 1812 to 1826, a period of
14 years, and died, still a middle-aged man, at the nearby mission of
San Gabriel, Calif., in 1831. The only picture of Father Boscana
known to be extant is the reproduction of what was evidently a pencil
drawing published in Robinson’s book, here republished as plate 2.
It shows the father in the latter years of his life, probably when he
was stationed at San Gabriel.
The San Juan Capistrano Indians which the Historical Account
describes are a northwestern subdivision of the so-called Payom-
kawish or San Luisefio Indians of San Luis Rey Mission, who
occupy the San Luis Rey River drainage in northern San Diego
County, Calif., and adjacent regions. The dialect which they speak
belongs to the great Aztecan family of languages.
The religion of the Indians described by Boscana centers about the
revelations of a prophet named Chinigchinix, as it is spelled in this
version, the x being pronounced as in Catalonian, that is, equal to
English sh. The prophet was known by three sacred names: Saor,
meaning common person, noninitiate ; Tobet, medicine man, initiate ;
and Quoar, a name too sacred to pronounce aloud. These three names
apply to three successive periods in the prophet’s revelatory life. The
prophet was born at the rancheria of Pubu in Los Angeles County,
Calif., only a couple of miles inland from Alamitos Bay, there accom-
plished his principal teaching, and when he died, was from there
merely translated to the heaven of the stars, leaving no. earthly bodily
remains. From above and everywhere he watches our deeds and
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 92; INOZ 4, PES 2
FATHER GERONIMO BOSCANA,
MISSIONARY Al SY JUAN CAPISTRANO.
ONLY EXTANT PICTURE OF REV. JERONIMO BOSCANA, REPRODUCED FROM
LITHOGRAPH FRONTISPIECE IN ALFRED ROBINSON, LIFE
IN CALIFORNIA, NEW YORK, 1846
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 3
thoughts, and sends poisonous medicine animals, known as Chinigchi-
nix animals, also calamities and death, to punish those who mock his
dances and disobey his commandments. So much does this deity
prophet command our central-attention throughout the essay that
Robinson calls his translation outright: Chinigchinich.
A very literal and careful translation of the newly found manuscript,
following all the minutiae of its style, is here presented. Exhaustive
notes have been prepared and will constitute a separate publication.
4.
VIVA JESUS.
A historical account of the belief, usages, customs, and extravagancies
of the Indians of this Mission of San Juan Capistrano, called the
Acagchemem tribe.
INTRODUCTION
My having resolved to write this history, fabulous in itself, or in its
subject matter, but true as far as these Indians are concerned, has
been primarily with the aim of being able to fulfill to some degree my
duties as Apostolic Missionary, having their fulfillment ever present
and near at hand, as well as also of leaving to those who come after me
instruction and lights in order that they may be guided without such
labor as it has cost me, trying in every way, using all possible means,
to gain knowledge of the belief, usages, and customs which these na-
tives had in their gentile state. And by the mercy of God, through
labor and cunning during a period of more than ten years [marginal
annotation: from 1812 to 1822], I have been able to investigate to a
moral certainty everything that is related in the present book.
Since I am of the persuasion that if we are ignorant of the belief
held by the Indians, of their usages and customs, it is very difficult to
take them out of the error in which they live and to give them to
understand the true religion, and to teach them the true way to their
salvation. I confess that it is difficult to be able to penetrate their
secrets, because the signification of their usages and customs is not
known to all of them. This [signification] is only for the chiefs and
certain satraps, who performed the work of priests, and [certain]
criers, and when these taught it to their sons (and that only to those
who were to succeed them), it was always with the admonition that
they should not divulge it to anyone, for if they told or divulged it,
they would have many misfortunes, and would die, etc., instilling into
them much dread and fear ; and for that reason so little is known about
their affairs, since those few who know and understand keep it to
themselves.
Since these Indians did not use writings, letters, or any characters,
nor do they use them, all their knowledge is by tradition, which they
preserve in songs for the dances which they held at their great feasts.
But since these songs have their form or are in a language distinct
5
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
from that which is spoken at the present time, no one, except those
mentioned above, understands the meaning of the song and dance;
the others sing and dance but without knowing either what they are
saying or what they are doing. I imagine that such songs are in a
primitive language, and they preserve them in their feasts, and these
songs and dances contain all their religion, usages and customs, and
for this reason these songs are not used or sung except in their feasts.
They also have common songs and dances in their own language,
which latter are sung and danced daily, and are understood by all, but
these are nothing more than for the purpose of amusing themselves
and idling about with one another.
What I have said above seems to me sufficient for understanding the
purpose which has led me to write this little work about the belief,
usages and customs of these Indians, and if it may seem to some that
my bravery has been great, attributing it to arrogance and presumption,
since [ am a pigmy beside my brethren, they being more illustrious and
of greater experience, let it be borne in mind that I have not written it
to show myself to be anything more than what I am, but that my pur-
pose is that I may free from delusion those who have confided to me
their errors, as well as that certain ones may be incited to make public
the secrets of the Indians which they have encountered, with the result
that with information on record as regards their belief, usages and
customs, they can be told what they may follow and what they should
put aside; and for this reason I hope that he who reads this com-
position may be pleased to see such information, and if he should find
anything which may disagree with the truth which I have proposed to
set forth, or any defect to correct, I shall give boundless thanks to him
who may show it to me, so that the error may be perceived and cor-
rected. And withal I am beseeching God that he grant us his holy
erace and benediction. Amen.
CHAPTER I
FROM WHAT RACE OF PEOPLE MAY THESE INDIANS COME?
[1.] Since no information is found as to where these people of
California may have come from, neither the natives of this Mission
nor of the rest of the country being able to give an account of their
origin or race, not even having it by tradition, it is necessary [for us]
to walk blindly, traveling to and fro with closed eyes after the truth,
and perchance not knocking at her door for a long interval, or perhaps
departing further from the truth—inasmuch as this chapter is all by
way of conjecture, if I err in this undertaking, it is not through will
and caprice, but because of not being able to discover the light in a
place so dark, going along groping blindly.
2. Without pausing over what the authors relate as to whether they
are descended from Jews, as some think, or from Carthaginians or
Phenicians, as others think, I for my part, without involving myself in
times so remote, shall give attention to the kinds of people who came
to settle the Mexican kingdom.
3. The kinds of people who settled the Mexican kingdom, accord-
ing to what Fr. Torquemada tells us in his Monarquia Indiana [mar-
ginal annotation: book 1, chapter 14], were four, he says, namely:
Tultecas, Chichimecas, Aculnas, and Mexicans. Among these above
mentioned different kinds of people, it is my feeling that the Indians
of California here are of the Chichimeca race, because they are simi-
lar [to them] in every respect, according to what the above mentioned
Torquemada relates to us [marginal annotation: same book, chapter
15], when he says: that toward the regions of the north (away from
the City of Mexico, and at a great distance) there were certain prov-
inces, the principal city of which was called Amaqueme, and the inhabi-
tants Chichimecas, people naked of clothes, fierce of appearance, and
great warriors, their arms bows and arrows, their ordinary subsistence
is game and wild fruits, and their habitation in cavernous places or
straw huts, for since the principal exercise of their life was hunting,
they did not amuse themselves with building palaces.
4. Although the said Chichimecas lived in towns or rancherias, they
had very few police, for they did not recognize any king or lord, but
let themselves be governed by a chief, though not by one greater, as we
7
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
shall see in the proper place, or by one more esteemed, than any other
man of those of the rancheria, with the result that in treatment and
life all were equal.
5. This name Chichimeca means sucker or one who nurses, and since
the principal and usual food of these was animals which they hunted,
the meat of which they ate raw, and since they first sucked the blood
of the animal, from this they got the name Chichimeca. Perhaps among
themselves they may have had another distinct name which I do not
know. These Chichimeca people did not live stationary at a single place,
but from time to time moved from one place to another. They were
ignorant of medicine for curing their diseases, and they did not bury
the dead, but burned them. They did not use many idolatries, or
venerate many Gods, and for this reason they did not have sacrifices.
6. Comparing then these Indians of California with the above
mentioned Chichimecas, we find them absolutely similar: For their
life was the same, because although they lived in towns and rancherias
having a chief, which these [Indians] called Not, he was without
police or laws, and to him they held very little obedience, as we shall
see, Their dress was the natural one, which is to go about in their
bare skins; their subsistence animals and wild seeds; their medicines
almost none; and they also burned the dead. And in a word I find
them similar in every way; I speak of those whom I have [here]
treated and whom I have observed, who are the people of this Mission
and its environs. And I think that through all the Province they are
the same; I only find a difference in the Canalefios, who in many
things differed from these Indians [here], for one perceives in them
greater industry, a different bearing, and they buried the dead and
did not burn them.
7. Only the diversity of languages which we find in the Province
causes me much difficulty for assuming that the entire Province
comes from that Chichimeca race, for each tribe appears to be of a
distinct language. For we should suppose that the Chichimeca
tribe would speak a single language, although from place to place there
would be certain different [terms], such as provincialisms, but in
general it would be the same [language | and all would have under-
stood each other ; but we find it so different that the Dieguino language
and that of this Mission neither in terms nor accents resemble each
other, nor can a single word be understood mutually. And I say the
same of the Canalefio language and the others of the north. If Iam
told that certain tribes may have corrupted the primitive language, |
say that it may well be, but that there would always be a connection,
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA——-HARRINGTON 9
such as we see between Old Castilian and that which is spoken at
present.
8. [The matter set forth in] this paragraph above is what confuses
me without being able to discern what may be the cause; if anyone
of my brethren or others who may see this could make it clear, I
would be boundlessly grateful to him, it being a matter useful to all
and especially to us. Let what has been said be sufficient, and may
others enlarge upon the above chapter.
CHAPTER 2
ABOUT THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.
Do not let the reader think that I wish to give here an account
of that which Moses relates in the first chapter of Genesis. I do not
intend any such thing, but to set forth the belief which these Indians
had in their gentile state about the beginning of the world. And
although one encounters in the narration many contradictions, we
should not be surprised that certain crude Indians, without knowledge
of the true God, without faith, without law or king, governed so
long by the Father of Lies, without writings or characters, but having
everything by mere tradition—we should not be surprised, I repeat,
at their extravagancies and the little discernment in their acts, for
since they were so ignorant, without being able to distinguish the
true from the false, they did not know the path of light, and con-
tinually walked in darkness.
The belief which these Indians had concerning the origin of the
world was thus: they relate that formerly there was nothing, only
one above and another below; these two were brother and sister,
man and woman, the one above, a man, which is properly the Heaven,
and the one below, a woman, which is the Earth, but it was not the
Heaven and the Earth as they are seen now, but of another nature
which they do not know how to explain, and it was continually very
dark night, without sun, moon, or stars. The brother came to the
sister, and brought the light, which is the sun, telling her that he
wanted to do many things with her; it meant that he wanted to
cohabit with her. But the sister resisted declaring to him that they
were brother and sister, and that therefore it was impossible to
consent to what he desired, and that for that reason he should go
back and leave her in peace.
Note: And the Indians of these parts pay such faithful observance to the
first degree of consanguinity that I have never heard that brothers with sisters,
or fathers with daughters, or sons with mothers, have been seen at all, nor
even with first cousins, for being first cousins they are treated the same as
brothers; but not so with the relatives by affinity, for there were many married
to two sisters, as they also had the custom that if a woman died and she had
a sister, the latter entered as a wife in place of the deceased woman. Here is
seen the Mosaic law.
But at last in spite of all the resistance that she made, the sister
became pregnant, and what she brought forth was earth and sand,
10
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON Tet
but a small quantity, after the shape and manner of a little plot of
ground ; this was the first childbirth. She again found herself preg-
nant, and in this second childbirth she brought forth rocks of all
kinds, sorts and sizes, and principally flint for the arrows. She
again found herself pregnant, and in this third childbirth, she brought
forth trees, and shrubs or chamize. In a word, after having given
birth to all the things which are seen on the earth, such as plants,
herbs, and the rest, she brought forth as her last childbirth one whom
they call Oiiiot. This was an animate being, but different from the
rational kind, and irrational. But the father and mother of the said
Ouiot were not people, but something else, and they do not know
how to explain or to give to understand how they imagined them.
The above mentioned Oiot had children, and was the king or great
chief of all that family. This Oiot and his children constituted,
according to what I have understood, a species of animals distinct
from those of the present day. Asking them how Chief Oiot had
sons, or who was his wife and what she was called, they do not know
how to answer this question, but say that he had many children,
but how they do not know, nor whether all were males or whether
there were females, they do not know this either, but conjecture that
there were both, because women give birth that way. The dis-
cussion of the above I leave to philosophers, for my intention is noth-
ing more than to make a succinct account.
CHAPTER 3
THE LIFE OF CHIEF OUIOT AND THE ORIGIN OF
THESE INDIANS.
While Chief Ouiot was with his people, as they say, which he kept
procreating, that first ground, which his mother had given birth to,
kept increasing and widening, always from the north to the south
(it is to be noted that all these Indians believe that they come from
the region of the north), and as they kept on increasing, the earth
kept growing all the time. Oiot already being very old, the eldest of
his vassals, whether it may have been because of envy or because of
the desire of governing, determined to kill their chief, alleging that
he was not governing them well, and that he already was too old to
govern ; they held their conference as to what manner of death they
should put him to, and the decision was rendered that he should be
herbed or poisoned. They made the mixture, and giving him to drink
that beverage which they had prepared for the purpose of killing
him, immediately he felt sick, and finding this to be his fate he
descended from the hills or mountains where he was making his home,
and he came to where the beach now is (for at that time there was
no sea yet). His mother knowing the danger in which her son, Oiot,
found himself, prepared a remedy for curing him, which was in this
manner: she urinated in a large abalone shell, placed in the urine
some worms and certain herbs, put it in the sun, but while she had
it fermenting, the Coyote came along, gave the shell a kick, and
spilled all the medicinal preparation, and by this accident were frus-
trated all the desires and hopes of the mother of Chief Oiot.
Note: These Indians were of the belief that from this urine which the
Coyote spilled, the sea was formed, that from the worms which were in the
shell the fish were created, and that from the herbs were born the Giant Kelp
and other plants which there are in the sea, and for this reason, they say, that
the water of the sea has the taste or flavor of urine, because it is salty and
bitter.
At last Chief Oiot died, and although before he died he had told
them that in a short time he would return to live with them, from
that time on they never saw him more. It is to be noted, that at that
time there were no seeds or game, their food was earth, (which
according as they explained and as I understand) is a kind of white
clay or fine argil, with which they plaster their heads. Finding them-
selves thus situated after the death of Oiot, they discussed the
IZ
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 13
matter of giving him burial. It was deliberated whether he should
be buried or burned, and all the votes were that he should be burned.
They prepared the hearth with wood and with the dead Oiot on
top of it, and fearing that the Coyote might eat him, they sent him
away to hunt for fire. And what the said Coyote did was to with-
draw to a short distance and hide, spying on what they were doing,
and on one occasion when he was some distance off they lighted
the pyre, and the Coyote seeing it, behold he comes back at full
speed, and although they did not allow him to approach, he saying
that he wanted to burn himself up and die with his chief, he jumps
over them into the flames, and seized a piece of the shoulderblade
and shoulder of Ouiot, ate it up, and he did not get any more because
the rest had been consumed by the flames. This Coyote was called
Eyacqiie, which is the same as second chief, and at that time they
changed the name Eyacque to the name of Endo, which means thief
and eater of people, and thus they call coyotes at the present time:
Eno.
After concluding the functions and ceremonies of the burial of
their Chief Oiot, that is, after having burned him, they all assembled
for a great council, at which they discussed in what way they could
have wild seeds to eat, such as acorns, Wild Amaranth, chia, etc., and
also game such as deer, cottontail rabbits, jackrabbits, quails, ground-
squirrels, rats, etc. While all were at the above mentioned meeting,
they saw on various days and many times one like a phantom, differ-
ent from themselves, who kept appearing to them and disappearing,
sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, and finding them-
selves in suspense and fear at what they were seeing, they decided
to call him to them. They called him, he came to them and they
asked him if he was their Chief Ouiot. “I am not Chief Oiot,’” he
answered them, “ but a greater chief, and I am called Chinigchinix.”
They asked him where he lived, and he answered: “ My habitation
is above.”” He asked them what matter they were discussing at the
meeting and why they were all gathered there. They answered him
that it being that their Chief Oiot had died, they were disussing how
they could support themselves with wild seeds and game, and not have
to subsist any longer on the clay that they were eating.
In consideration of these motives Chinigchinix answered them
and told them: “TI make all things, and I shall create people for
you people, distinct from yourselves, whom you soon shall see.
And now, from this moment on I give unto you power and faculty,
to each one of you, that one shall make it rain, that another shall
make the weather clear up, that another shall produce acorns, that
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
another shall produce chia, that another shall produce Wild Amaranth,
etc.; likewise that another shall produce cottontail rabbits, that an-
other shall produce ducks, that another shall produce geese, that
another shall produce deer, etc. To each one he gave the power,
now to produce seeds, now animals, of the kind that they eat. And
still at the present time, those who pretend to be their descendants,
claim to have this power, and the [other] Indians consult them, asking
that they produce many seeds, that they make the ducks tame, and
they pay them well, so that they will be pleased, for they believe that
if they do not pay them, there will be no seeds, nor will they get game.
After Chinigchinix had given the power, as we have said, to the
descendants of Oiot, which must have been the time of dixit et
factum est, he created the people that he had told them about, and
Chinigchinix made these people from a little mud of the shore of a
lake, and these are the Indians that now exist, and he did not make
merely one but a number of men and women, and he told them:
‘He who obeys me not or believes not in what I teach him, him shall
I punish, to him shall I send bears to bite, rattlesnakes to sting, and
other misfortunes.”” And he taught them the law which they should
observe henceforth with its rites and ceremonies.
The first commandment which he gave them was that they should
build him a temple in which they were to worship him, offer him sacri-
fices, veneration, and cult, this same Chinigchinix furnishing the de-
sign or model of how the temple was to be built. This Chinigchinix,
whom from that time on they considered as God, the Indians say had no
father or mother, and all are ignorant of his origin. I have not been
able to obtain the etymology of the name Chinigchinix, nor do the
Indians know what it means or its significance, as is also the case with
the name Quiot. It is true that they are proper names, and for that
reason must have and should have their origin, but so far I am ignorant
of it.
They believed that the God Chinigchinix was everywhere present,
that he saw everything, though it were dark night, but that no one
could see him; that he was a friend of the good and punished the
wicked much. This God Chinigchinix has three distinct names,
namely: Saor, Quoar, and Tobet. Each name has its own meaning,
for Saor signifies or means the time when the said Chinigchinix did
not yet know how to dance. Quoar when he already knew how to dance.
And Tobet when he danced wearing a little skirt or apron of feathers,
adorned with feathers like a crown on his head, and painted up. And
they say that this Chinigchinix went away dancing to Heaven. And
this kind of dress their God Chinigchinix commanded them to use in
their feasts, and they use it in the special dances of their great feasts.
NODA NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 15
This is the belief which these: Indians had about the creation of the
world and their origin; and in the narration of this fable alone we see
included and comprised all the usages, customs and ceremonies of the
Indians of this Mission and vicinity with slight variation.
I consider that the reader is in suspense after reading the above ac-
count and that he is desirous of learning what became of the children
and descendants of Ouiot, after Chinigchinix created the Indians from
the mud of the lake, since we have made no further mention of them.
According as some relate, the God Chinigchinix after making the In-
dians, transformed them|the race of Ouiot |into people or Indians like
themselves, and to this account I adhere as being the one more reason-
able and congruous, because of what we have said above about the
power and faculty which Chinigchinix gave them [the race of Ouiot|
of producing seeds and game, and about those who hold themselves to
be their descendants claiming to have that power yet. Others tell that
when they [the race of Ouiot] saw the Indians which Chinigchinix
had made, they [the race of Ouiot] departed to another region, and it
is not known where, and that they have not been seen more. Others tell
other things which I am not taking time to write, considering them the
forgings of their crude brains.
to
CHAPTER 4
ABOUT THE TEACHING OR INSTRUCTION WHICH THEY GAVE
TO THEIR CHILDREN.
One of the matters in which the Ancients experienced the greatest
difficulty and which gave them considerable care was the bringing
up of the children, because on this being good or bad depends the
goodness or badness of the child. Since these Indians did not know
either the mechanic arts, or the liberal ones, or did they need them
because of the manner of life which they led, but only those neces-
sary for their own preservation, they therefore were not able to teach
their children anything useful to rid them of their idleness. They
merely instructed them in the handling of the bow and arrow, and this
in order that they might learn to hunt for food and defend themselves
from their enemies.
Although these Indians were ignorant of the true path, and the be-
ginning of wisdom is the fear of the true God, and this fear the begin-
ning of the instruction of children, nevertheless the instructions which
the parents gave their children had their moral virtues, for the parents
and grandparents took care very earnestly that their children be well
brought up and good [children], because if one of them turned out
perverse, although they quickly removed him from their midst, they
were disgraced. And for this reason from the time they were small
they admonished them (and this by showing them beforehand many
misfortunes and punishments, if they did not follow carefully what was
being taught them), telling them that they should not be thieves, or
liars, that they should not injure people, should not fight with one
another, and should not use bad words, and above all that they should
not make fun of the old people, but should respect and fear them ; and
that if they did not give heed to these instructions which their parents
gave them, even though they might kill him [the perverse child], the
God Chinigchinix would punish him much. And this was the daily
harangue. These Indians did not punish the faults of their children,
they merely gave them certain admonishments to correct them, but in
reality very few offences were committed and the reason was the
much fear and great dread which they felt.
When the males were at the age of about 6 or 7 years, they gave
them a kind of God as a protector, and it was the animal in which they
should put all their faith in times of need, and it would defend them in
16
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 7,
all dangers, especially in the wars against their enemies ; and it was
never the principal [God], for they knew that he was hidden, and that
if at any time he appeared to them and spoke to them, it was always in
the form of animals, and of these the most abominable, ugly, and hide-
ous. Indeed, in order that the boy might know which one the God
Chinigchinix destined for him, and in which he was to place confidence,
they gave him a drink, which is prepared froma kind of tobacco (I do
not know the [Spanish] name of this herb) which they call Pibat
(they apply this term to all tobacco which is smoked), this they pre-
pare by grinding it up, and when it is pulverized they make a cake,
mixed with other ingredients, which according to what they have told
me are lime and urine.
To others they gave another [kind of a] drink [prepared] from a
plant which is called Toludche, and which they call Mani, and drunken-
ness is produced by one of these as much as by the other, in drinking
which they shortly lose their senses, and finding themselves deprived
of their senses by their drunkenness, they were made to fast 3 or 4
days or more (and it is to be noted that their fasts were natural ones,
they being given nothing to eat or drink during the entire time that the
fast lasted). During this period they continually had by their heads
some old men or old women who were preaching to them without
letting them rest either day or night, telling them that he [the boy]
should take good notice and be watchful, and therefore should not go
to sleep, that he might see if the bear, the coyote, the raven, the rattle-
snake, etc., were to come, naming over a great many; if they were to
come gentle or angry; and that from the first animal whom he might
see he should ask for what he wanted. The poor unfortunate, in his
drunkenness, and without having eaten or drunk for many days, had
a thousand visions and deliriums and when he said that he saw this or
that one and explained what he had manifested to him, that is, what
he was to do for him, he was then given. something to eat, so that he
would come to himself, and when he was somewhat stronger they be-
gan a great dance feast, according to their custom, exhorting him to
be very careful not to make angry the one who had appeared to him,
and to carry out exactly what he had commanded.
There were others who did not drink these drinks, and what was
done with them was that first they feathered them and painted them
well with a kind of soot between black and red color, and adorned in
this manner, they carried them to the temple called Vanquex, with
many ceremonies. On reaching there, the satraps put him [the boy] at
one side of Chinigchinix and in front of him on the ground they painted
a figure, the most ridiculous which can be imagined, for it consisted of
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
nothing more than streaks or lines, horizontal and transverse, circular
and semicircular, all poorly made without order or arrangement. There
they left the boy, forbidding him to leave there until the penance of
fasting was concluded (which was wont to last 3 entire days), telling
him that should he feel hunger or thirst he must have patience and
bear it, for if he ate or drank, though it were alone at night in secret,
the evil figure which was painted in front of him would make it known,
and that Chinigchinix was looking at him and would punish him,
sending diseases upon him so that he would die, and other similar
nonsense. And these poor boys believed it all infallibly, and observed
it to the very letter.
I was told of a case that had happened in the time of their gentile con-
dition, and it was that a boy being in the Vanquex during the penance
of fasting, on the second day found himself with considerable hunger
and thirst, and he went in secret to a nearby house at which there were
no people home at this time, found something to eat, ate and drank,
and immediately returned to his place, without anyone having seen him.
And after the period of penance was finished, finding himself one day
with his companions, he told them of what he had done at the time of
his penance in that he had eaten and drunk, and having found that the
evil figure said nothing, and that nothing happened to him, he stated
that everything which the Puplem, that is, the wizards or soothsayers,
told was lies and deceit, for having eaten and drunk and even rubbed
out part of the figure with his feet, nothing had happened to him, for
which reason one should not believe the Puplem. But his companions,
instead of opening their eyes and perceiving the error and the deceit,
so great was their resentment and fury which they felt against him,
because of the disrespect which he had shown the old men, that when
the matter was divulged he was shot to death with arrows.
Note: The drinks Pibat and Toludche, of which we have spoken above,
outside their use for the boys, were also employed by the men, and still are,
for the purpose of winning in their games, for obtaining the women whom they
covet, and for procuring any evil thing that they may think of. It is to be
noted that at the time of their drunkenness they also have to observe a fast,
for at least some 3 days, and that when this is over they are said to be cured,
and that when they are cured in this manner, they believe, and this without
having the slightest doubt enter their minds, that they will be able to attain
any evil thing which they crave; but if they are not successful and their luck
is reversed, as frequently happens, they attribute it to being poorly cured, that
is, that they did not drink sufficient medicine, or did not keep the fast well; or
to other similar causes.
After the boys had been put through everything that we have
related, they put on them their mark, which is properly speaking a
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—ILARRINGTON 19
brand—for it is obvious that the Devil, entering into the use of
reason, wished to have them marked like slaves, which was accom-
plished in this manner: They took a species of herb or grass, this
they pounded and crushed until it became like tinder, and put it on
the piace where they were to be branded (which was on their arms
and thighs) in the figure which he [the boy] was to have, lighted it,
and let it burn until it was consumed. We must consider that the
burn soon raised a blister and made a sore. This they left until it
healed, without putting any remedy on, and the place remained scarred
permanently. Others instead of the grass used dry tule, and others
the dung or manure of jackrabbits or cottontail rabbits.
The cause or reason which they allege for branding themselves
thus was that they believed that with this mark they have more
strength in the arm and better pulse for handling the bow, and that
Chinigchinix wished it thus and so commanded, in order that they
might conquer their enemies, and that he who was not branded with
this sign, which they called poteuse, would always be unfortunate
and beaten, like a despicable man and one having little strength.
The boys, in addition to what has been mentioned, had to suffer
still other martyrdoms in order to become men and be able to present
themselves among the rest. It was their custom, after the mark had
been put on them, when they were bigger boys, to whip them with
nettles and to put ants on them, and this was done in order to make
them more robust and stronger, and it was done as follows: In the
summer time at about the months of July and August when the
nettles are in season and the fiercest they took some bunches of
them and with these began to whip the boys on their legs, thighs,
butts, shoulders and arms. After this sacrifice, having been well
lashed with nettles, they placed the patient on a nest of fierce ants,
and another one was stirring them up to make them still fiercer, and
since the patient had no more clothes on than what he brought from
the belly of his mother, we can imagine in what condition he must
have been, after having been thoroughly lashed with nettles, as a
result of those fierce ants, which even cause fever. And so great
was their patience, that they seemed like dead, without a groan or
movement. These were the ones called cured. There were some who
suffered this torture several times over, and many went through it
alone or with some companion, for they believed that when thus
cured, they were from that time on more agile, and that the arrows
of their enemies could not harm them.
They also deprived the youths from getting close to the fire, in order
that they might learn to suffer and to harden themselves to the in-
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
clemency of the weather, and also from eating certain foods, such
as acorns, Islay, Chia, etc., as well as the meat of certain animals,
such as deer, cottontail rabbit, jackrabbit, etc., in a word, all the
best foods that they had, telling them that these foods were for the
old people only, and that until they had 2 or 3 children they could
not eat of them, and that if they ate of them before that time in
secret, the Toux, which is the Devil, would make it known and would
punish them, causing them many injuries, such as: stumbling over
rocks, tripping over burrows, that mountain lions, bears, rattlesnakes,
etc., would bite them, and that their Chinigchinix would be very
angry and that they would die. And they had such faith and belief
in these fabulous stories, and so great was their dread and fear, that
they would sooner perish than transgress to the slightest extent.
In the instructions that they gave to the girls, in addition to the
general admonishments which they gave to the boys, they added that
they should not be run-abouts, but remain in retirement, nor should
they be sleepy-heads or lazy, but always ready and obedient, so that
when they were grown up they would know how to work at their
chores, which are the hunting and cleaning of seeds, the preparation
of acorn mush and pinole, these being the foods which they use.
And for this reason from the time they were little girls they would
make a traybasket for them suitable to their size, and would teach
them to do this work, as well as to grind or to pound up the seeds,
telling them that knowing how to work and not being lazy, they
would have, when they grew up, many men who would seek them,
and that they would be very much liked.
In this region, toward the south, the custom prevailed of tattooing
the women, and from the time they were little girls they began to
tattoo them, commencing in the case of some between the eyebrows,
in that of others on the chin, extending it as they kept growing over
almost the entire face, breasts, and arms, which tattoo was generally
lattice pattern, [but] there were other women who had lines and other
figures. This tattooing was done as follows: With some thorns from
an Opuntia Cactus thicket they pricked the place until it bled. Then
they rubbed it with a kind of charcoal, and that place remained with a
blue color which never disappears. The principal reason why they
tattooed women, according to what I have been able to investigate,
is because they say that when tattoed thus they are prettier and
better liked and will have many suitors. But I fancy and believe
another thing, and it is that just as the Devil put the burn on the
men as a brand, in the case of the women it must be the tattoo, and
thus he had both men and women marked.
NOTA! NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 21
What these Indians had rare and special was that the fathers and
mothers advised their daughters when they were grown up, telling
them that if while gathering seeds for pinole or traveling to some
other place they met with one of the eaters of human flesh or one
of the wizards, and these wanted to use them, they should not resist,
but should agreeably comply with their desires, and this though
they might be going along with their own mothers, or if married
they might be going along with their husbands, for these latter at
the first insinuation yielded their right. And this was because they
told the women that if they resisted and did not willingly comply,
they would poison them with herbs and make their bodies rot, along
with other similar nonsense, and the poor wretched women believed
it infallibly, and full of fear they submitted to everything, although
it was against their wishes.
At the first menstruation, or at the time of the first monthly, as
they say, they used to hold some big feasts with many ceremonies,
which began in the following manner: They made, and still do
make, a hole about a half yard in depth, not round but long, after
the fashion of a grave, they fill it with fire with some rocks in it,
and when it is good and hot they clean the hot coals out of it,
leaving in it the rocks, good and hot, they lay on top of them a
bedding, as it were, of California Mugwort (which is a species of
Wormwood), called Pacsil. On top of the California Mugwort the
girl lies, covered up well, without being given anything to eat or
drink for 2 or 3 days, or at least very little, and thus they keep
her until she has become clean. In there, the girl patient, in her hot
pit, is bedecked all about the pit with the feathers of various birds,
shell beads, and many things which they have, and with some old
women, who have that task, singing without letting her rest either
day or night, a song so tiresome that one does not know if they
are crying or laughing, a black glue or bitumen on their faces so
that they look like devils. I have not been able to determine what
they say in their song, because I can never understand them [the
old women], and when I asked others about it, they all answered
that they did not understand them, while unmarried women dance
around the girl patient at certain designated hours during every
day of the roasting. Since these days were feast days, many people,
men and women, went there, some to dance and others to watch
the dancing and to get something of what was being distributed,
be it pinole, shell beads, or whatever it was. The above described
was the general method, with exception of some poor [girls] who
bo
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
bo
got fixed up with their mothers and grandmothers alone, without so
much witchcraft. In their present status of being Christians they
use the same procedure, with the witchcraft removed, which they
used in their gentility, of feathers, dances and songs.
The most peculiar custom which these Indians had was that
there were a few [girls] although very few, daughters of chiefs,
and among these principally the first born, in the case of whom,
after the catamenia had come to an end and the girls had come forth
from the roasting, an old man, one of the wizards, designated for the
purpose, made with a flint a little cut in the girl’s private parts, and
after the operation started preaching before all the people, saying
that that girl was already a woman, that she was good, that she would
have many children, and other similar nonsense.
CHAPTER 5
ABOUT THEIR MARRIAGES.
One of the things necessary for the conservation of the life of
man was company, for which reason God ordained that man should
have woman, with whose company he should pursue two ends, one,
the intercourse, of which he was capable, and the other, that from
the union of the two would be born children who would follow
in the propagation and increase of the race. Although it has
been an ancient custom among all nations to give the women to their
husbands, it has not been everywhere in the same manner or with
the same ceremonies, and for that reason I shall set forth those
which these Indians employed.
The general custom which they employed for seeking a woman
for the purpose of marriage was that the man who wanted to be
married went for several days to and fro about the house of the
woman that he desired, but without entering it, waiting for an
occasion to speak to her, and when he found her all alone he told
her: J want to marry you, or We should get married. There were
others who sent a third [party] to talk to her in private, and if the
girl said yes, she notified her parents, and if they agreed, the bride-
groom was notified that he could come into the house and talk with
them and with the girl. There were also certain ones whose mar-
riage was fixed up by the old people, and it was that after the parents
of the girl had been notified these same old people notified her
telling her: You have to marry such a one, and you will live well,
and you will have many things, for he knows how to kill deer,
cottontail rabbits—and [telling her] other similar things.
The first time that the bridegroom entered the house of the bride
he brought his little present, now a deer skin, otter skin or seeds,
or shell beads, in fact, whatever he could, and from that day on he
was considered bridegroom of the house, tending to the bringing of
something to eat, for he ate and in most cases also slept there, but
without cohabiting with the bride, or having the least indecency with
her either in words or actions, and they were very scrupulous about
this.
During this period, which we may call the period of betrothal,
the obligations of the bridegroom were to bring wood to the house
23
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
every day, and to hunt cottontail rabbits, groundsquirrels, mice, etc.,
to eat. And the girl had the obligation of working at the chores and
duties of the house. The first thing that she did was that at the
first streak of dawn she arose, went to the water and bathed herself,
brought water for the house, sprinkled it, swept it, and this with
much promptness and care; then she prepared the food of various
kinds of mush, pinoles or of whatever they had, and [did] the
other chores of the house, and she had to do all of it alone, without
the help of anybody. Sometimes also the parents of the bridegroom
went to eat [there].
Note: Having the bride perform all the tasks of the house was in order
that the bridegroom might observe whether the girl was lazy, and whether she
knew how to prepare food and to do the other necessary work of the house, and
whether she would serve him well, and for this reason he lived in the house of
the bride.
When they determined the day of the wedding, after having spent
some 15 days, in some cases a longer and in some a shorter time, dur-
ing which the above mentioned manner of living lasted, they notified
the relatives and friends, or we might better say the whole rancheria,
of the wedding feast, which lasted from 3 to 4 days. When the day
arrived, certain old men called Puplem (who are those of the Sanhe-
drim) took the girl and in public took off of her all the jewels and
adornments which she was wearing (these were a kind of earrings
[made] of shells and long bones) in her ears, and on her throat and
arms, they decorated her head with feathers, but not like the crown of
the dancers, but with the feathers spread out—her hair, arms and
bosom, and decked thus with feathers they presented her to all the
people, and then seated her beside the bridegroom on a tule mat, certain
old men dancing in front of them and singing to them, and with the
other people also dancing and eating all the time that the feast lasted.
The instructions which the parents gave to their daughter before
they parted were very good ones, for they told her that she should
always remember that she was the daughter of some good parents,
and that therefore she should not disgrace them, that she should serve
her husband well whom Chinigchinix had given to her, that she
should not be with another man, for even though she were executed
they would remain disgraced, and other similar things, and at the end
they added: and if your husband does not treat you well, let us know,
and you shall return to our house.
There were others who went themselves straight to ask the parents
for the girl, and if they yielded her, gave them a present of shell beads
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA——-HARRINGTON 25
or of something else (which I consider to be like a promise or pledge).
These notified their daughter telling her: Daughter, you are to marry
such a one, for we have already given you to him. And the poor girl,
whether it were her pleasure or against her will, or however it might
be, had to marry the man who had asked for her.
There were also certain ones who were given in marriage from the
time they were small [children], and it was in this way: The children
being of tender age, the fathers and mothers on both sides being to-
gether, either with a feast or without one, would say: These 2 little
children are to be married, and without further ceremony they were
already married, and from that time on the 2 little children played
together, ate, and slept together, and the 2 houses were one and the
same for both of them; until on reaching competent age they gave
their feast as we described above, and they cohabited together. The
marriages celebrated thus were mostly those of relatives by affinity,
for among them relationship by affinity was not held to be an impedi-
ment. In the year 1821 at this Mission I married in the face of the
church a couple whose marriage had been contracted since the time
they were children, for the girl must have been about 6 months old,
and the boy about 2 years when their parents already married them.
There were also among these Indians marriages by rape, and it was
that when a captain or his son fell in love with a certain girl of another
rancheria, what he did was to send to that rancheria 3 or 4 or more
Indians, well armed. On reaching that rancheria, they went directly
to the house of the girl and laid before her father and mother the
commission which they had brought from their chief, that therefore
they should give their daughter to be taken to the chief, and that
otherwise they would kill them. The poor wretches, full of fear and
dread from the threats that were made them, delivered their daughter,
though it might be against their will, and she was taken and led to their
lord, and they were already married without performing the ceremonies
which we have described above.
What we should search out is whether these marriages of the
Indians were true marriage contracts or not. There is no doubt that
according to what we have seen they were apparently true marriage
contracts (except the rapes, and the unwilling ones, which were null
and void), but the rest it seems were true matrimonial contracts, and
should therefore be perpetual ones. Yet among these Indians in many
cases they were not so, or better stated, it was their belief that they
could get divorced whenever it pleased them and they felt inclined,
and it was a custom current among them, for if after being married
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
they did not suit each other, be it for whatever reason it might be and
after whatever period of time might have elapsed, if they did not suit
each other, as I said, they got divorced at once and each one took
his [own] road, and they got married again to others.
My way of thinking is, and I believe I am right, that their marriage contracts
were not absolute, but conditional ones, that although at the time of getting
married this was not explained verbally, tacitly it was understood, for the reason
that it was their custom. This is my way of feeling, Salvo meliori, it is obvious
to us through experience, and it is confirmed by the exhortation which the
parents gave to their daughter when she departed with her husband: That if
the husband did not treat her well, she should return to her home. Theretore
they were not true marriage contracts, for conjugium is to unite two together,
under a perpetual yoke.
They had the custom that the first time that the woman found her-
self pregnant, all the people of the rancheria held a feast, eating and
dancing, and this for one night only. This feast was held with the re-
joicing that another one was coming to them, and in the song of the
dance they asked their God Chinigchinix to guard for them that child,
the mother being a good woman, since she was about to give them
children, for they considered a sterile woman to be a bad omen. When
the time of childbirth arrived, they did not do anything special, but
after she had brought forth and the baby had been cleaned off, they
showed it to the people, and if it was a male the grandfathers named
it saying: N., thus this child will be called, and if it was a female the
grandmothers named it; and it was always the name of themselves
[the grandfathers or grandmothers], of their parents, or of their
ancestors, unless at the time of the birth something rare and peculiar
might have happened, from the significance of which they gave the
name.
The oddest custom of these Indians (although the Ancients [the
ancient Mediterranean peoples] also had it) was that at every child-
birth, from the time the woman brought forth, the husband had to go on
diet like the woman herself, and this consists mainly in his not being
able to leave the house except to bring wood and water, [and] in not
eating meat or fish or other foods forbidden by them. This diet usually
lasted for some 15 days, although in many cases it lasted during the
entire period of the lochia of the mother, in the case of others a shorter
time, according to the love which they had for the child, and now that
they are Christians they still observe it, for they are of the belief that
if they break or do not observe this diet, chiefly by eating meat or fish,
the baby will die, and it is to be noted that in order for the child to
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 27
die the father had to be at home; if at the time of the childbirth he is
away from home, though he knows about it and does observe the diet,
there is no danger.
And in confirmation of the above I shall relate a case which happened
in the year 1819 at the Mission of N. [marginal annotation: San
Diego]. The wife of an Indian who was cook for the priests at the
said mission, gave birth before the proper time to a baby, very weak
and sickly. The husband after it was born began his diet, and on the
second day, the priest seeing that the Indian ate nothing more than a
little bread asked him the reason why he did not eat meat and other
things as usual. The Indian answered him that he was not eating meat
because he did not want to kill his child. The priest began to exhort
him telling him that he should abandon these gentile ideas that his
child would not die though he [the father] ate meat. The Indian was
reluctant, but seeing the persistence of the priest (and he was doing
it in order to disimpress him of those ideas), he ate like the rest, and
in the evening the child died. Of course it is to be reflected that the
death of the child did not come from the eating of meat, but from
the child’s sickness and weakness and premature birth, but all the
Indians and he himself attributed it to the eating of meat.
Entre las barbaridades, que pueden contarse de estos Indios, (aunque
el P. Torquemada [marginal annotation: lib. 13. c.9.] ya habla de unos
semejantes, y quizas seran de una misma rasa) una es y no poco pesima,
sino de las mas abominables, el casarse hombres con hombres, estos son
unos hombres, que aunque sean varones desde chiquitos les ensefan
todos los oficios y trabajos de mugeres, y su modo de vestir es el de las
mugeres, hasta en sus brutalidades usan de ellos como de mugeres:
Estos tales servian, tanto en su Rancheria como en otras que fueran,
como publicas rameras, y este mal trato sodomitico, les era permitido,
entregandose a aquel que queria usar de ellos. De estos havia algunos
Capitanes, U otros que se casavan con ellos, y estos los tenian que a
mas de usar de ellos en sus brutalidades, para hacerles sus comidas, y
servicio de la casa, que como hombres siempre tenian mas fuerza.
Estas especies de hombres todos tenian un mismo nombre que era
generico: en las Rancherias de este contorno los llamavan Cutt, y un
poco mas tierra adentro Uluqui, y por la canal Coyas. Estos de esta
Provincia, no eran como los que refiere Torquemada, pues dice: que
aquellos eran unos hombres mariones impotentes, corpulentos, y
membrudos. Los que Yo he visto, son hombres usuales como los demas,
y no padecen tal impotencia, pues conosi a uno casado con muger de
Christiano y tenia dos hijos. Lo mas particular que havia entre estos
a a eee
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
dichos era: que como ellos, servian de mugeres a los que los querian,
tenian estos la facultad y licencia de cohabitar con la muger que les
quadrava, si ellas consentian, y los maridos no decian nada por ello,
porque como ellos decian era hombre muger, podia jugar y divertirse
con las mugeres, pues con ellas iva 4 pinolear, y hacer todos sus
trabajos, y nunca usava de arco y flecha, advirtiendo que eran la gente
mas despreciable de los demas.
CHAPTER 6
ABOUT THE MANNER OF LIFE WHICH THESE INDIANS LED.
The mode of living or of life which these Indians had is not of great
moment, for they led an idle and lazy life, more like that of brutes than
that of rational beings, and being ignorant of the arts, they had no
employment and profit with which to busy themselves for using up
their time, for they did not cultivate the ground or sow any kind of
seed, inasmuch as they subsisted on the wild seeds of various plants
which the earth produces, and on the fruits of trees, and on game;
and therefore their tasks and labors were confined to the making of
bows and arrows (nor did all of them do this, for the youths did not
wish to work at anything, but the old men and the poor men), the
hunting of deer, cottontail rabbits, groundsquirrels, rats, etc., in order
to eat and dress, if going about in their bare skins, as they used to go,
can be called dress. For the clothing of the men consisted generally of
nothing but their naked skins, but some of them put a deer skin or
coyote skin over their shoulders, after the fashion of a cape. The
women prepared from the skins of cottontails and jackrabbits a kind of
cloak after the fashion of a choir-cope; this they made as follows:
they kept twisting the skins, making a cord or string of them, long, and
about an inch thick; this cord they sewed together turn on turn
making the cape, as I said. In front of their private parts they [the
women] wore certain little nets, or a kind of fringe made of grass
which reached nearly to their knees; and nothing else except the
decorations of shells and bones in their ears and on their necks.
Their way of spending their time was in playing games, taking trips
about, sleeping and dancing. The whole life of the men was confined
to this, except the old men and the poor men, who also busied them-
selves in making certain household utensils ; or again instruments for
working the bows and arrows, such as little saws, punches or awls, and
other similar things (the little saws they made from the shoulder-
blades of deer; and the borers or punches from their shin bones, as
well as from the bones of fish) ; in making nets for various uses: now
for fishing ; or again those which they use for carrying their utensils,
the women the babies ; for catching quails ; and for other uses.
Among the women the mode of life followed was very different,
for they in addition to making the household utensils had to seek all
the things necessary for a livelihood, which are the wild seeds of the
country ; after gathering them [they had] to clean them, to grind
them or toast them for making their pinoles and various kinds of mush,
29
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
which were the foods on which they subsisted. It was pitiful and
caused compassion to see a poor woman with the baby on her shoulders
about the country, suffering cold, and again heat, hunting certain herbs
or seeds ; [to see her] arrive home without finding either fire or water,
and most times not even wood; [to see her] clean them, grind them
and cook them, and after they were prepared [to behold] her idler
coming now from the game or dance, or getting up from sleep, [to
watch him] consume [the fruits of] the toil and fatigue of the poor
woman, while if he ate everything up, she had to go without food, not
being able to say a word. The women in their gentile condition were
worse off than slaves, for one cannot realize the subjection in which
they found themselves ; it was sufficient [reason] if her husband be-
came angry with her either because she answered harshly or because
she did not have what he wanted, for him to leave her, or to slay her,
and most times the quarrels came from the husband gambling away
the utensils of the poor woman. But thank God, since the light of the
faith entered these lands, since the holy gospel has been preached,
the women have gained the Christian liberty which Jesus Christ won
for us through his passion and death.
The woman could not be idle at her home, for after the food had
been sought and prepared and all the chores of the house had been done,
she had to make all the utensils needed for her work: such as large
and small baskets, which serve as plates and cups for eating, and for
other uses; traybaskets for cleaning and toasting seeds; and other
similar things.
What is wonderful and for which we should bless God, as regards
these women, was the facility and happiness which they had in the
bringing forth of children; it can be stated that they scarcely felt at
all the pains of childbirth, which did not last half an hour, and many
times the woman was alone, and she herself after having given birth
cleaned the baby, and after passing the afterbirth washed herself of
all the mess of the childbirth, and we are to note that they did not
give birth to children inside the house, but outdoors, and this though
they might be in the house, for upon feeling [that they were about to
give birth] they would go outside, turn the face in the direction that
the wind was coming from—and shortly afterwards would set them-
selves to working at whatever was necessary to be done about the
house, that was, if there was no one else to doit. In their present state
of being Christians, the Creole women of the Mission no longer have
this facility, which they had in their gentile condition ; I attribute it to
the exercise which they used to have when they were gentiles, since
many of them now have more idleness, for finding herself pregnant,
she no longer works at anything unless it be something short and easy.
CHAPTER 7
ABOUT THEIR OBEDIENCE AND SUBJECTION TO THEIR CHIEFS.
Before speaking of the obedience which these Indians had for
their chiefs, we shall set forth the method and ceremonies which
they employed in their election or proclamation. When the chief
was already old or because of some incapacity desired to retire from
governing, he prepared a great feast, and invited the neighboring
chiefs and friends. On the arrival of these, all being together, he
declared to them that his purpose in inviting them to that great
feast was to elect his son as chief, since he already found himself
quite old, and afflicted (this amounts to a sort of acknowledgment ).
On the following day in the morning the crier came forth shouting
through all the rancheria, declaring that the chief was making his
son a chief, and that they should come to the feast of the new
chief. Everything necessary having been arranged for the function,
the new chief put on himself the imperial insignia or robes, which
consisted of his hair being tied around his head by means of its
cord, and a slender stick about half a yard long, shaped like the
blade of a knife, stuck in his hair, the little skirt of feathers, and
the crown, [he being] well painted up and reddened, and dressed
in this manner, he began to dance alone for a while, and then the other
chiefs came out and putting him in the middle danced together with
the new chief, and it is to be noted that they also were dressed with
all the insignia of chiefs.
This feast lasted for at least 3 days including the nights. The
old chief saw to it that there were many kinds of food in the line of
pinole and meat for the invited ones and for all the people of his
town, and without further ceremonies than the ones above men-
tioned he was already recognized as chief; but it is to be noted that
he did not take up the reins of government immediately, but when
his father determined, or upon the death of the latter, and then
they did not do anything special, but from that time on he already
performed the functions of chief.
In the succession of these chieftainships, women also entered,
when males were lacking. She could marry whoever she pleased,
though he were not of the race or lineage of chiefs; but the husband,
be who he might, though he were the son of another chief, was never
3 31
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
recognized as such nor did he have command, but they only recognized
the woman. But she did not govern or perform the functions of
chief, but the government was exercised by another, an uncle or a
grandfather, the nearest of blood. But the first male whom she bore,
immediately was declared chief, and from that time on all of them
already recognized him as such, although the other one was ruling
during the entire period of his minority, which was up to such
time as he could perform alone the functions of chief. On the day
when the command was delivered to him, they invited the neighboring
chiefs and friends, the crier called together the town, and they
made their great feast as we have mentioned above.
It is to be noted that whenever a feast was held all those invited
brought their present for the chief who was inviting them, but he
had the obligation to return it when they invited him, and in the
same kind which they had given him.
As regards the obedience and subjection which these Indians
had to their chiefs, what I have been able to investigate is that
in as far as his mode of living was concerned, they did not recognize
him at all; nor did he mix [that is, interfere] with his people, as
they say: they [the people] had a free life, without subjection or
subordination to anyone, without laws of government, or police,
without punishments for wicked doers, as also without rewards for
the well deserving; and in a word everyone lived as he pleased
without anyone interfering with him, do what he might. Since the
knowledge of the true God was lacking among these Indians, they
lived without faith, without law or king, and therefore a life more
that of brutes than of rational beings. What causes wonder is how
these towns could keep in peace and quiet without laws of govern-
ment or police. And indeed in the gentile period there were very
few fights and quarrels between them, for since all the rancherias
were composed of a single relationship, I believe that it was for
that reason that all lived in peace, the parents continually exhorting
their children to be good; for if someone committed some crime, if
the offended person was able to revenge himself, the revenge, which
was almost invariably death, was the punishment for the crime, but
the chief did not intervene in the matter at all.
Although the chief did not exercise any authority so to speak in
the administration of justice, nevertheless they had for him great
respect and veneration, and especially so the youths on account of
the great fear and dread with which they were imbued from the
time they were small, and likewise for the elders, this being the daily
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA— HARRINGTON 33
harangue as we have said above. And because of the fear and
dread which had been impressed on them, they did not dare to
commit any incivility, for if some bold [youth] presumed to maltreat
or to injure them either by deeds or words, at once they ordered him
slain, and it was in the following manner: an old man, one of those
who had been appointed for the purpose, began to shout through the
rancheria weeping bitterly, saying that such a one had done or said
this or that to the chief, and because of this crime the God
Chinigchinix is very angry with us, and wants to send a great sick-
ness upon us; and therefore, young men, arm yourselves for killing
such a one, that by presenting him dead to Chinigchinix, he may
lay aside his wrath and not kill all of us. Since the Indians believed
these deceivers like infallible truths, immediately the men went
forth armed with bow and arrow, and wherever they found him,
there they killed him, and together with the arrows that they had
shot at him they presented him to Chinigchinix. Afterwards the
relatives of the dead man took him and carried him to the pyre to
burn him. The authority which the chief exercised in his rancheria
was: that he was the one who had to tend to and handle all matters
which came up with other rancherias; to call together for war,
defensive as well as offensive, and also for [making] peace; to
announce the day of all the feasts which they celebrated, which were
many; to set the general days for hunting and seed gathering, for
the old women and the women also went privately whenever they
wanted to and needed them [the seeds] for their subsistence without the
permission of the chief or of anyone. These general expeditions
were for the purpose of [obtaining food for] celebrating their feasts,
and in them all those of the rancheria, men and women, participated.
The men killed the game, such as ducks, geese, cottontail rabbits, rats,
etc., and the women gathered and carried them; having returned
to their rancheria they all of them delivered the greater part of what
they brought, both of the animals which they had killed as well as
of the seeds of all kinds which they had gathered to the chief, (and
that night a great feast was begun). But do not imagine that these
seeds and animals which they delivered to the chief were a kind of
tribute, that as such they owed it to him. Not so, for these seeds
which they delivered to the chief were for the purpose of cele-
brating the feasts, and the chief had to keep them like a deposit,
being deprived of eating or using the least part of them, not having
any more of them than what was left over in the feasts.
And if any chief ate the said seeds or sold them, or gave them
out squandering them, what they did was to kill him, alleging that
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
he was a bad chief and did not take good care of his people. It was
the old men, wizards, or soothsayers who proposed the death of their
chief to the youths, the latter armed themselves for killing their
chief, and not hastily and guardedly, but with a day designated for
the execution. The same fate befell the first chief, Oiot, as we have
stated above.
The chief, if he wanted anything to eat, had to seek it the same as
the rest, although there were some who made him their little gifts;
this was not because of obligation, but through good will; and for
this reason I believe, and they have assured me, many of them had
2 or 3 wives for the purpose of hunting seeds and having them in
abundance, so that those who came to visit could be invited to eat.
Of the wives which he had, one was the principal one, and the
others were like concubines, and the children of the latter did not
come into the right of the crown, unless legitimate children were
lacking. These princedoms or chieftainships were by succession and
not by election.
CHAPTER 8
DESCRIPTION OF THE TEMPLE CALLED V/V ANQUEX AND ABOUT
ITS IMMUNITY.
The temple which these Indians had, called Vanquex, ordained
by their God Chinigchinit at the time of its formation, was built
at all the rancherias near the house of the chief, which house was
always the biggest and tallest one. Although the town or rancheria
was built without order or symmetry, since everyone placed his
house where was most convenient for him, nevertheless the house
of the chief got to be located at about the middle of the town,
and adjacent to the house they built the Vanquex in the following
shape: they made a circle about 3 or 4 yards in diameter, not round
but oval. Of this they took half of the circle, and in this half circle
they built a fence or stakework of brush or tule mats about 2 yards
or more high. At the other half circle they built another little
stakework of small sticks, which did not project from the ground
but 2 or 3 fingerwidths: inside this oval circle they had the figure
of their God Chinigchinix, on top of a framework, which consisted
of a bundle, in a coyote skin, of feathers, deer horns, mountain
lion’s claws, and other small things of this sort; the beaks and claws
of the hawk were not lacking there, especially those of a kind
called Pames, with the feathers of which they dressed the Chinig-
chinix [figure] and made the little skirt for dancing, but this
[little skirt] could not be worn by all, but only the chiefs and satraps
or wizards called Puplem.
When the chief gave notice’ by means of the crier of the general
expeditions for going to hunt game or for gathering seeds, the Puplem,
which means soothsayer, or he who knows all things, and for this
reason they are called wizards (Note: I consider them as priests, since all
the functions in which the people had to assemble at the temple were directed by
them; and the chief and crier were of their number and were the principal ones),
the said Puplem painted a figure on the ground inside the Vanquex,
very ridiculous and odd, like the one which we mentioned in con-
nection with the penance of the boys, and before leaving the rancheria
the crier announced to all the people that they should venerate it,
and all should go to worship it.
Their manner of worshipping this evil painting was that when all
the people were assembled, all the men being armed with their
35
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
quiver, bow, and arrows, and well painted up, the chief and the
Puplem being dressed in their vestments, which were the little skirt
of feathers and the crown on the head, and with the rest of the body
painted with a dye of hematite and black, and the rest of them
being in their natural dress, which was in their bare skins, but well
sooted up so that they resembled devils more than men, all went one
behind another, commencing with the chief and following in order,
running, and as each one arrived in front of the Vanquex, before
the Chinigchinix [figure] and the figure which was on the ground, he
gave a jump with a half turn, like a kind of a skip, and a loud cry,
raising his bow and arrow as if shooting in the air, and in this
manner all of them passed by, performing the same ceremony. The
most amazing thing about it was that when they gave the half turn
they turned their backs to the Chinigchinix [figure], or better said
their butts, surely a ridiculous thing, and the subject which they
venerated merited nothing less. The women after the men had
passed by also went one behind another, but slowly, and on arriving
[at the place] each of them made an obeisance like a half bow
with her body, showing the traybasket or tools which she was carry-
ing. And this ceremony they performed in order that that horrible
painting might preserve them from all ill, notably from stumbling
over rocks, tripping over burrows, so that the limbs of trees would
not fall upon them, and from other similar accidents.
Great was the veneration and respect which these Indians had
for their temple, for rather than have the slightest irreverence be
committed in it, no one save the chiefs and Puplem, or elders,
entered within it (that is, on the feast days) ; the other people re-
mained outside of the stakework, and the boys and girls did not
even approach it. They did not speak inside it, except what was
very necessary and that in a low voice, and also those who were
outside observed silence. Inside the temple there was dancing, but
only by the chief and some other one of the Puplem, and this in the
dress of Chinigchinix, making in front of him a thousand odd and
ridiculous maneuvers. The position which they assumed when
before the Chinigchinix [figure] inside the Vanquex was sitting
on the ground with their buttocks on or to one side of their heels
(this position has always caused me much wonder—for the Devil,
who wishes to be honored and venerated like the true God, taught
them the ugliest, most indecent and ridiculous way of worshipping
him which can be imagined—to be in a squatting position some
Indians whose dress ‘was to go naked), and in this fashion they re-
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 37
mained without moving for 2, 3 or more hours until the function
was concluded.
The immunity which these temples or Vanquex possessed was so
great that whatever the crime, be it what it might be, homicide,
adultery, theft, etc., if the delinquent had the fortune to be able
to take refuge at the temple before his opponents encountered him,
and those whom he had aggrieved knew that he had taken asylum, he
was already free and could go where he pleased without ever being
molested or the least mention being made of what had happened ;
they merely told him if they met him: You went to the God Chinig-
chinix, and had you not gone we would have’ slain you, but he
will punish you because you are wicked. They believed that Chinig-
chinix was a friend of the good, and punished the wicked, as we
have said above, and they also believed that Chinigchinix did not
wish when once refuge had been taken with him in the Vanquex
that they should take vengeance or justice with their own hands, and
for this reason they let him [the delinquent] go free. It is to
be noted that although the delinquent remained free, the crime did not
remain exempt from punishment, for although the evil doer might
not be molested in any way, either his children or grandchildren or
relatives came to pay for it, which happened when the grievance was
the occasion for vengeance, and this hatred or grudge with desires
for revenge ran on, being handed down from parents to children
until they were able to fulfill their desires.
In this same way the chief could save his life and escape from
death when they accused him of squandering the seeds which he
had on deposit, if he had the fortune to be able to take refuge at the
temple, and when they went to look for him for the purpose of
slaying him to be found there; indeed no one entered or dared to
shoot an arrow, for if anyone had dared the least profanation and
irreverence they would immediately have taken his life. And from
that time on the chief could go about during his entire lifetime free,
as a private and not public man, without anyone daring to make to
him the slightest mention of what had happened ; but he lost forever the
diadem of chief, and immediately they elected one of his sons, to
whom it fell by right, admonishing the new chief that he should behold
the example of his father, that if he was not a good chief they would
do the same with him.
CHAPTER Q
ABOUT CERTAIN OF THEIR PRINCIPAL FEASTS AND DANCES.
Since the feasts of these Indians all consisted of dances, I shall
therefore treat certain ceremonies of their feasts, and especially cer-
tain dances on account of the rarities and oddities which they contain.
Although they enumerate many different dances, most of them amount
to being of the same kind, merely differing in the words of the
song, while the song and manner of dancing is the same. And so
great is the affection which they have for their dances that they will
spend days, nights and whole weeks dancing, and it can be said that
all their passion is given to dancing, for few days pass that they do not
have a dance, without becoming tired of a thing that is continually of
the same sort, the most insipid that one can imagine.
Note: That these Indians are so fond of the dance is in memory of their
God Chinigchinix who as we have said above went away dancing to Heaven,
and they were of the belief that those who did not dance (that is, of the dancers,
who are only the chiefs, and Puplem or wizards), and those who did not
attend the dances, were to be punished and hated by their God Chinigchinix.
The manner of fix-up or dress for their dances we already men-
tioned in treating the proclaiming of the [new| chief, it being a feather
ornament made like a crown from various feathers of birds, placed
on the head; and the little skirt or apron, also of feathers, made in
the form of fringe which reaches half way down the thigh, which
skirt they call Pdelt; and the rest of the body painted black and red,
and some of them with some white, and fixed up in this way they dance
their dances. The women do not paint more than their faces, arms, and
breasts, with a kind of varnish between black and red color, very shiny
and sticky. It is to be noted that they never dance men and women
mixed, but the men alone, and the women alone, though they all dance
together, the men always apart and separate from the women, but
indeed all sing in the same tempo and the same song.
Many of their dances are very decent and for a time entertaining on
account of the many maneuvers which they perform in them. There
are certain men and also women who are the singers, appointed for
leading in the song, who have some little shells of small turtles, a
couple of them stuck together, and with some little stones inside,
called Pdail. This is the instrument which they used and still employ
in their dances. Since this instrument is made of some shells of small
38
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—ILARRINGTON 39
turtles with some little stones inside, they call it Pdail, because the turtle
is called thus. It was made like the following figure | drawing of two-
shell turtle rattle follows this word and another with grasping hand
is given in left margin]; they also used, when the paail was lacking,
some reeds open down the middle, and the singers sound them and
sing, and when the couplet is finished it is repeated by the men and
women who are dancing. Many of their dances do not contain any-
thing more than a mocking of certain animats.
Among all the feasts which they celebrated every year, among the
principal and most solemn ones was one which they called the feast of
the Pames, which means the feast of the bird, for they gave a kind of
worship and veneration to a bird which has the same form and size as
a kite, although somewhat larger. It is a kind of carnivorous hawk,
but very sluggish and stupid. The day set for the great feast of the
Pames, which feast consisted of many extravagancies, was spent as
follows. The night before, the crier, crying throughout the town, in-
vited all to the great feast which began the following morning. First
they made outside the town or rancheria a kind of temple. To this
temple, which was not used for anything more than for that function,
the elders or Puplem carried the said Pames or bird in silence.
Note: The construction of this temple consisted in cleaning off a piece of
ground from 14 to 2 yards in diameter, of round shape, and around the edge
they set some brush of willow, cottonwood, or other brush, and sometimes they
did not set anything, but very clear of any litter.
The Pames having arrived at the said temple, immediately the un-
married girls, and the married ones, but young, who had not yet given
birth to a child, began to run like crazy women, some in one direction,
some in another, without order or arrangement, whose running lasted
for about an hour, more or less. While they were running all the rest
of the people were looking at them, and with the old men or elders
daubed up with black, uglier than the very Devil, dancing around the
bird. When all that we have mentioned above was concluded, they
took the Pames and with all the people in procession they carried it to
the principal temple, the Puplem dancing and singing in front of the
bird all the way. Arriving at the Vanquex, they killed it, without
drawing blood, they stripped off and dried the skin with the feathers
on, which latter they kept as a relic, for from these feathers they made
the little skirt or pdelt, as they call it, for dressing the Chinigchinix
[figure], and for dancing. Then they buried it [the body of the
Pames] in a hole which they had made inside the Vanquex, the old
women immediately rushing to the spot crying and well stained up
with black gum, throwing to it [to the Pames] seeds, pinole and
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
whatever food they had, saying a thousand foolish things to it, such
as: Why did you run away? Were you not better off among us? If
you had not run away, you would not have turned into a bird, and
other expressions of this sort. When the whole function was over, the
dance began, which lasted at least 3 days including the nights, in
which they committed a thousand brutal actions.
I have not been able to learn what was the meaning of so great a
ceremony, neither have I been able to determine what may have been
the particular signification of the running of the single and married
girls at the beginning of the feast of the Pames while all the people,
men and women, watched them run, for it must contain its peculiar
mystery. What I conjecture in it is that as the Pames according to
their way of thinking was a girl who ran away from them, these
[girls], imitating her, run as if fleeing away, and therefore they run
without order, and watching them run must be for the purpose of per-
ceiving the girls who run swiftest and with least embarrassment—that
they may spend with them the days of the feast, for as they say, on
these days all intercourse was free.
The Indians relate that the said Pames or bird was a girl who ran
away from a rancheria and went to the mountains, and that the God
Chinigchinix made her into Pames, or turned her into a bird, and this
is their belief ; and that every year although they kill her, she is born
again, and the nonsense does not stop here, but they believe that she
multiplies herself, for every year 3 or 4 or more birds were seen,
for all the chiefs gave the feast of the Pames, and since it was only one
girl who fled away from them, they believe that all these birds are the
same girl. This feast of the Pames or bird which they celebrated every
year was ordained by their God Chinigchinix.
These Indians had in their gentility a dance for the commencing of
which they lighted first a great fire of chamize or of straw, and when
it was well lighted the men began to jump upon it and into the middle
of it until they put it out, while the women remained at some distance
crying, and when this bonfire was entirely extinguished the crying of
the women ceased and the dance began, and if it happened that it was
not thoroughly extinguished or that some sparks appeared, they re-
mained sad for a considerable time, for they held it to be a bad omen
and feared some mishappening. These dances were always at night.
If this dance was executed on the day of some great feast to which
they invited the neighboring rancherias, in addition to what has been
related they added [the following]: Before they began they sent
someone to bring water from a designated place, and it was always
somewhat distant. This water they put in its little well or hole, which
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—I ARRINGTON Al
they had already made inside the Vanquex, all the chiefs and Puplem
in their proper order went over to blow to it and to make certain
imprecations to it, which was like blessing it, although one might better
say cursing it, and after all the ceremonies were concluded all the men
went, beginning with the chief, in their proper order, to sprinkle their
faces with that water, and when this ceremony was finished the putting
out of the fire followed, and after that the dance, as we have said.
They had another kind of dance in which after the men had danced
for a time they formed themselves in a file, and a woman would come
out alone with her hands under her breasts as if to hold them up,
dancing in front of the file of men for 3 or 4 turns (dressed accord-
ing to their custom which was: the little strings in front for covering up
her private parts, and a skin of a coyote, wild cat, or some other
animal for covering her butt, and nothing else), and would then retire.
The men resumed their dance the same as before, and the woman fol-
lowed again, they continuing in this way until the dance was con-
cluded. The woman did not sing, but only the men, without there being
in this dance the customary singers, but they had the Paail instrument.
There was another dance which they called Aputs, which signifies
naked or in one’s bare skin. This dance was danced by one woman
alone, and it was in this manner: just one woman stripped herself
naked (although she had very little to take off), and this had to be a
girl, and the other people all around in a circle, men and women, big and
little, and she in the middle, her hands placed underneath her breasts
as if holding them up, dancing in the middle of that circle, and all
watching her dance and observing her movements and actions. She
herself sang, but her song was confined to naming her private parts and
those of the men, an infamous thing and a diabolical invention.
They had another dance similar as it were to the one above described
which they executed when some son of a chief or of the Puplem was
to dance for the first time in public, and this day was one of great
festivity, and it was in this manner: When the little boy was about
2 or 3 years of age, or a little more or less, he who was to be a dancing
man, danced for the first time in public, they dressed the boy with the
little skirt of Chinigchinix made of the feathers of the Pames, they
placed the crown of feathers on his head, the rest of his body painted
black and red, and in this way he danced alone for a while, the musi-
cians and singers playing the rattle and singing, nothing being lacking
on this occasion, until he became tired, and if the child was no longer
able to dance alone, one of the Puplem, dressed in the same vestments,
carried him on top of his shoulders and danced with him, and with
all the rest of the people watching them. When this dance was con-
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
cluded, a sister or aunt or some other one of his closest female relatives,
single or married as long as she was a young woman, got up, stripped
herself naked before all those assembled, who were always many,
without exceptions of persons, and naked thus with her hands under-
neath her breasts she began to dance, giving turns back and forth in
front of all, offering herself to anyone that desired her. She alone
sang, and her song was confined to saying, that she was well, healthy,
that she was already a woman, and many brutal things. This dance
was danced inside the Vanquex, but the preceding one was danced
outside in another place. They had other dances and similar songs.
But through the mercy of God since they have become Christians they
are already abandoning them, or at least they do not execute them in
public as they were accustomed to in time of their gentility.
CHAPTER 10
ABOUT THE CALENDAR OF THESE INDIANS.
It can not be doubted but that the calendar is one of the most curious
and useful of things and even to some extent necessary to man in
order to distinguish him from the brutes and enable him to divide times
and ages, and know past happenings, the time which has elapsed since
they occurred.
The calendar of these Indians, if it can be called a calendar, differs
very little or not at all from the natural instinct of brutes. These latter
know the times, with their seasons, for their food and procreation, we
see many animals at the prescribed time move to another place or
even to another climate because of inclemency of weather and lack of
food, and when the season arrives return to the same place. These
Indians had this same way of doing that the animals had or something
very similar, for they had nothing more than the name of the months,
which denoted the time or season for gathering the various seeds for
their maintenance and the preservation of life. And this matter of the
names of the months, all of them did not know, [but] only certain ones
of them and these were few.
What causes wonderment, compassion, and pity is to see creatures
endowed like the rest with spiritual souls, created in the image and
likeness of God, so rude and so slow that all their activities appear to
be mere natural instinct like the brutes, for all their activities are those
of cunning for the purpose of deceit, theft, fornication, and other
wicked things, but they fall short of attaining to the cunning of the
cat, female fox, and female monkey, etc.
These Indians lacked in the first place a chronology and starting
point whereby they could reckon the dates of past years, nor did they
have this either in figures or in signs, and therefore their calendar was
confined to the months of the year from tropic to tropic, or to the re-
turn of the sun, and since their months followed the course of the
moon or were counted by the lunations, all their years were lunar,
and since lunar years are different from solar years, all the years had
vacant days, some years [having] more and others fewer, for when the
moon of December was finished, they waited for the return of the
sun from the tropic of Capricorn, and began another new year, without
remembering what had passed by, and for this reason they did not
43
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44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2
know (and this [included] those best instructed in their antiquities )
how much time had elapsed since this or that thing had happenel, etc.,
and therefore they did not know anything more than the present time,
putting their reason to use [only] with natural instinct, as it were,
like so many animals.
Names of months according to the natives.
Aaxcomil December and January.
Peret February.
Yamar March.
Alasoguil April.
Tocoboaix May.
Siutecar June and July.
Cucuat August.
Lalavaix September.
Aguitscomil October.
Auquit November.
In order to comprehend the method or manner in which these
Indians counted the months of the year, it must be understood
that their year always began the 21st of December, and thus those
days which elapsed between the last conjunction and the 2Ist were
vacant [days], and according to their way of expressing it they
said: there are no days, and on the 21st, whatever number of days
old the moon might be, they began to reckon the month of Aaxcomil,
which lasted during all of the following moon, and the new year
began; therefore this month alone comprised 2 moons, that of De-_
cember, though only in part, yet some years in its entirety, which
happened when the conjunction passed the 21st, and that of January.
The same thing happened in the month of Siutecar, which corresponds
to the month of June, with the only difference that if the 21st of
June fell in the full of the moon, the days before the full of the
moon were not vacant [days], but were added to the preceding
month, Tocoboaix, and on the 21st the other month started, but if it
fell before the full of the moon, the month began the day of the
full of the moon, and the other ensuing month followed. All the
other months began with the conjunctions of the moon; for that
reason they never or scarcely ever agreed with ours.
What is described above is all that these Indians had in their
calendar, which served them for gathering their seeds, as we have
said, and for celebrating their feasts. They were ignorant of the
number of days of which the months were composed, and much
more so the years, and were only governed by the phases of the
moon: this latter indicated to them the days on which they were to
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 45
celebrate their feasts and also for the anniversaries of their dead,
though these latter did not fall on the same day on which the person
had died in any year. With this end in view the Puplem when the
deceased died observed the aspect of the moon, and in what month
it was, and the next year, the month having arrived and the aspect
of the moon being the same as when he died, they then celebrated the
anniversary. And we are to understand that the same method ap-
plied for the celebrating of their feasts.
CHAPTER II
SOME OF THEIR MANY EXTRAVAGANCIES.
Many were the rare, extravagant, and ridiculous practices which
these Indians had, and therefore in addition to those mentioned in the
proper place, I shall relate some of these which appear especially
ridiculous and singular, everything being derived from the stories and
fables with which they are imbued from the time they are small
children, so that they are brought up full of fear, and for this reason
anything whatsoever fills them with dread, and since they were so rude
with such sluggish understanding, they were not able to distinguish or
deduce that which is true from that which is false, but continually ad-
hered to that which the old people told them, and for this reason are
seen so many extravagant and ridiculous things among them.
They had the notion when buzzards were flying about, if the shadow
of the buzzard passed close by, of immediately covering themselves,
and they still cover their heads, chiefly the young women do, for they
believe that if the shadow of the buzzard would touch their heads,
sores would come out on them, such as scalled-head and other similar
[sores].
There was another rare and singular practice among these Indians,
and it was that the deer hunters or hunters of deer could not eat of
the deer which they killed, for they were of the belief that if they ate
of the game which they themselves killed, they would not kill any
more, and the fishermen had this same idea and never ate of the fish
which they themselves caught. But the most singular practice was that
in the case of the youths, when they went to hunt cottontail rabbits,
groundsquirrels, or deer, one of them could not go alone, and there-
fore at least 2 of them went [together], for he who killed the game
could not eat of it, but this was not for the above mentioned reason
[that the eater will not be able to kill any more game], but for another
reason [that the eater will sicken], which was that 1f one of the un-
married men were to get a cottontail rabbit or some other animal and
were to eat it by himself hiddenly, in a few days he would start feeling
pains in his body and start wasting away, getting thin like a hectic
person, and for this reason they always went in company, and what one
killed the other one ate, swapping their game ; but it is to be noted that
in order that this effect be produced, the eating has to be in secret, for
if it was in public on the general [expeditions] when all the people
went along, though they ate of the same game that they had killed,
46
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 47
there was no such sickness. They had for this sickness their healers,
who with 2 incantations of blowings and feathers, made them well in
short order. Nowadays since they are Christians nothing of what we
have mentioned happens to them, nor do I believe that it would
happen to them in their gentility, and that if any boy at any time was
seen to be sick, it must have come from other causes, or else from mere
imagination, for this was also a daily harangue which they gave them.
And it was for the purpose that if they found cottontail rabbits,
jackrabbits, or others in the country they should bring them to the
house and should not eat them.
When they discover any eclipse of the sun or of the moon they start
great shouts, cries, and bitter, weeping, and this all of them, big and
little, throwing dirt into the air, beating on skins, [and] tule mats
with great noise. And this they do because they are of the belief that
a hideous animal eats the sun or the moon, and they make such exer-
tions in order to scare it away, and they think that if that animal would
eat up all the sun or the moon, that is, if it would be a total eclipse, they
would all have to die and the world would have to come to an end. I
believe that at the time of the eclipse when they make such a noise, they
are making their supplications to the God Chinigchinix, because I
saw (at one which there was in the year 1813 and at another in 1822),
of the sun, that when the eclipse was over the old men began their
dance like giving him thanks for having delivered them from that
animal.
They also had the custom at the time of the new moon, the first
day that the new moon appeared, [that] some old men began to shout,
saying: boys, start your moon running! And immediately the youths
began to run like crazy men without order or arrangement, and the
old men to dance as a sign of joy, saying in their song that even as
the moon died and lived again, even so, though they also were to die,
they were to live again (this very clearly manifests the resurrection of
the flesh), but how they understood it I have not been able to determine.
The rarest thing that I have found among these Indians is that
there were certain ones who claimed to be descendants of the Coyote,
and these ate human flesh, but not like the Caribs, Mexicans and
others, but in another manner, the dirtiest thing that can be imagined,
and it was in this way: when the chief or another of the satraps died
(for the function was performed for all of these), they summoned the
Eno, Tacue, for thus he was called, and after the death of the person,
with a flint, the said Eno cut a little piece of meat from the shoulder
near the neck of the deceased, and before all the people who were
present there, he ate it raw. (This was in imitation of what the
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48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Coyote did to his Chief, Oiot, as we have related above.) And for
the above mentioned function they paid him well, and all the people
gave him of what they had. The people were in great fear and dread
of these | Tacue], because they held them to be poisoners and wizards,
and therefore they used great caution as regards them.
These Indians had also an account of the universal flood. I do not
know, nor can I understand, from where such an account comes to
them. And this I have learned from certain songs which I heard sung
on a certain occasion, it being a little story which I shall give later.
These Indians believe and say that at a remote time the sea began to
fill up so that it came in over the valleys, and the water rose over the
mountains, and all the people and animals died, except some who went
to a very high mountain, and the water did not reach there. The ac-
count that they give extends only thus far, but the [little] story which
I heard, gives it more clearly and extensively, and is as follows. It is
to be noted first of all that the Indian is very rancorous and nurses
hatred to the third or fourth generation, and grievance being handed
down from parents to children as we have mentioned, and when they
were not able to take revenge, they contented themselves with singing
the following little story, which is as follows: They were of the belief
that one of the descendants of Oiot, whom they poisoned, begged of
Chinigchinix the avenging of Chief Oiot. Chinigchinix answered him:
You are the one who makes rain, therefore you can make so much
water rain down that you will drown everyone, and thus you will be
revenged. And indeed it began to rain and the sea [began] to get
rough and to fill up, and with the water that was raining down it came
in over the valleys and canyadas, the water continued rising over the
hills and mountains, and rose to such an extent that it covered all of
them, all the people and animals dying with exception of a few who
went with the one who was making it rain to a very high mountain,
the top of which the water did not reach, and these alone saved them-
selves. Thus one who I believe must have been removed from Oviot
further than the 6th generation took his revenge. And this is what
they ask of Chinigchinix: that he drown their enemies and save
themselves.
If their adversaries heard or learned that they were singing this
ballad against them, they answered with another one which amounts |
to saying: We now have no fear because Chinigchinix does not wish
it, nor will there be another flood. There is no doubt but that all the
above account has some correlation to the universal deluge, and the
promise which God made to us that there would not be another one.
CHAPTER I2
ABOUT THEIR BURIALS AND FUNERALS.
Before I deal with the method that they employed in their burials,
it will be convenient to treat first the remedies which they used in their
diseases. These Indians did not lack the use of certain crude remedies
in their diseases or the knowledge of certain herbs, that is, for external
diseases, for in the case of internal ones, such as fevers, no matter
what kind they might be, I have not known them to use any remedy at
all; just bathing with cold water was all the remedy they had, and
therefore when they felt a headache at once the first remedy was to
wash the head with cold water.
In external diseases, such as tumors, swellings, sores, and vagrant
pains they used certain herbs such as sage, California Sagebrush, and _
others, putting them on pounded up, as a poultice; and if they felt a
bellyache, they inhaled the smoke of the above mentioned herbs through
the mouth; but the most frequent and commonest practice, especially
when in pain, was to whip the place where the pain was with nettles,
and to put them right on the place of the pain, and likewise ants, and
these latter especially on sores, and in this manner they cured them-
selves.
In internal diseases such as fevers, pains in the side, burning fevers,
I do not know if they may have used special remedies other than
bathing ; what they did was to lie down naked on top of a pile of sand
or ashes, the little fire in front of them being in whatever condition
it might be, and a basket or pot of water at the head of the person;
they were also accustomed to set for the person a little basket of acorn
mush, but the sick person, if he wanted to eat, ate, and if not, he left it,
and without anyone importuning him to take food, and it is to be
noted that he always had someone or other at his side day and night,
and thus he remained until either nature conquered or the disease
conquered.
When they felt themselves attacked with some kind of fever im-
mediately they called their healers, who are the Puplem, of whom we
have spoken above, and (into their profession not all entered, but those
to whom it fell by succession). These on seeing the sick person gave
a great discourse, mentioning to them many kinds of diseases, but in
the case of all of these, that they came from foreign substances which
they had in their bodies, such as the hairs of certain animals, sticks,
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50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
little stones, thorns, etc., and that these foreign bodies were the disease,
and these imposters for the purpose of effecting a cure made ready with
many ceremonies, putting feathers on them, and other things, blowing
in the 4 directions, saying certain words without anybody or anyone
understanding them; and then sucking the place where the pain was
they pretended that they were extracting the bodies such as they had
mentioned—but in reality after their sucking they extracted from their
[own] mouths some of these bodies, such as little stones, sticks, thorns,
similar to or the same as those which they had told them previously
that they had; and these bodies they showed to those standing about,
and all believed it without having the slightest doubt, and the sick
person [being] very well satisfied whether he got well or died. They
told some that the disease had been sent to them by their God
Chinigchinix as a penalty or punishment for some delinquency which
had been committed.
There are many of these charlatans and deceivers everywhere, who
‘after they have been well paid and have filled their bellies laugh at
and make fun of the poor innocents, or better said, of their credulity.
After the deceit of the wizards, they having used all their diabolic
art, if the sick person died they tended to giving him burial, that is, to
burning him, (in these regions they burned them). After the sick
person died they allowed the interval of 10 or 12 hours to pass, watch-
ing if he would come to life again, as they said. In the meantime they
prepared the pyre, and having seen that he was really dead, they sum-
moned the cremator (it is to be noted that in these regions there were
certain ones assigned to this work, and it went according to family
succession). Everything being ready, they carried the corpse to the
pyre, leaving it there. All the people withdrew to a little distance, the
cremator alone remaining. He lighted the pyre, and he could not stir
from the place until the dead person was entirely consumed. And
when it was over they gave him something to eat, and paid him well,
and after that he retired to his lodging place.
All the things and utensils which the dead person had used, such
as bow, arrows, feathers, and the rest, were all burned with him,
serving as food for the pyre. They did not have special ceremonies
at the time of burning him, but after he was entirely consumed, they
retired to a little distance from the rancheria to cry over the death of
the deceased.
CHAPTER 13
ABOUT THE IMMORTALITY OF “THE SOUL.
In this chapter it seems that we have a somewhat difficult one, since
it deals with a substance imperceptible to the bodily senses, because
it is incorporeal and spiritual, nevertheless it has been possible to set
forth with concise words and briefly the belief which these Indians
held concerning the rational soul and how they imagined it, for the
purpose of observing something about its immortality ; but since there
are arguments pro and con, I shall expand somewhat more than I
have been accustomed to in the other chapters, in order that the reader
may be acquainted with the validity of both sides [of the argument],
and may be able to choose that which seems to him best, presenting
first my way of feeling and my opinion, according as I have been able
to understand and grasp, following their explanation.
These Indians were materialists, for they imagined the soul to be the
spirit of life, which is taken in through the air that we breathe, without
their knowing or believing that within ourselves there is supposed to
be another substance distinct from the material body ; that is, that we
are no more than bones, flesh and blood, which constitute what com-
poses the body, which they call Petdcau. A name for distinguishing the
soul from the body they do not have ; they merely use the name pusiin,
which is the generic term that means thing which is inside, and this
name they apply to the heart, since it is the principal place in man.
Since these Indians do not penetrate further than what they perceive or
can perceive with their senses, they do not attain to understand the
spirituality of our soul, but merely the materiality of our body, and
therefore are materialists, for they say that dead and with body
burned, nothing remained and everything was already ended. Also, as
we have mentioned in the preceding chapters the punishments which
they feared from their God Chinigchinix, were all bodily, such as
stumbling over rocks, falling down on the ground, being bitten by
rattlesnakes, [and] bears, and diseases, all of them ills of the body,
and lastly death, which was their final end—without ever talking or
thinking of penalties, punishments or glory after they were dead.
What has been said seems to me sufficient for perceiving that they were
materialists. But since they tell a thousand little stories, originating
indeed in dreams and deliriums, which manifest the immortality of the
soul, and I promised to relate everything that I have acquired on the
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52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
matter which we are treating, I shall set forth ingenuously all their
accounts. |
Since it has been proven therefore that they are materialists by the
arguments given above, not to add others which are also convincing,
the great insensibility which they manifest at the hour of death, their
little affection for and little inclination toward divine things, their
having all their desire set in brutal things, and other congruent argu-
ments which I could adduce, show very clearly the little or no percep-
tion which they had of the rationality of the soul, and therefore of
their immortality. Nevertheless there appears to be validity of argu-
ment, in what we have mentioned in chapter Ir in connection with
their moon running, at which they mentioned in their song that even
as the moon died and lived again, so also though they were to die, they
were to live again. But as I said, I have not been able to comprehend
how they understood this, if it was that as the moon shows itself the
same, they were to resurrect the same, which is what the Catholic faith
teaches us, or if they understood transmigration. I think that they did
not believe either one way or the other, for what they say is that thus
the ancients did, and that they they are doing the same as they learned
from their ancestors, without giving further notice or account of what
has been given above.
Let us examine their little anecdotes which deal with the immortality
of the soul, which though they all of them are nothing more than mere
fables, framed from dreams and deliriums both of men and women,
will serve at least in their narration to amuse the reader.
Some of them narrate that all the Indians when they die go to Heaven to
their God Chinigchinix (this Heaven they imagine as a terrestrial paradise),
that they have much to eat there, and to wear, that they dance much and
play many games, that they do not work, that no one is sad, but that all are
happy and glad, and everyone does what he wants to, and they have all the
women that they please. Let the reader compare this paragraph with
[their belief as regards] the immortality of the soul. This account
has been invented by Christians, for the old people have no such idea,
and in confirmation of this I shall recount a little tale which was
related to me by a woman.
At the Mission of N. [marginal annotation ; San Juan Capistrano |
in the year of 1817 a woman who was convalescing from a burning
fever related to me the following: When she was in the most violent
part of the fever she had a great paroxysm, and she told me that she
had died and that certain Indian relatives of hers had taken her to the
God Chinigchinix. Before entering the rancheria (which was very
large and beautiful, and we are to note that the houses were not of the
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA-—HARRINGTON 53
form and figure such as they use, but of another form, she being unable
to give the design), she beheld there a great number of people, men and
women (but all of them Indians), some of them playing games, others
dancing, the same games and dances that they have, and others bathing
in a great arroyo of very crystalline water. They arrived at the house
or palace of Chinigchinix, but he did not permit them to enter, telling
them that the woman could not live with them yet, that they would give
her something to eat and that she should return to her country. They
gave her to eat a very savory and good acorn mush such as she had
never tasted, and much of it, and after she had eaten well, she returned
to her rancheria, without having seen Chinigchinix. This is her account.
It is at once seen to be nothing more than a mere delirium.
Note: I went to visit this woman when she was in her paroxysm and in the
most violent part of her fever, and seeing that she was shaking and gnashing her
teeth very much, and with her mouth very dry, I gave her with my own hand
a glass of warm water with sugar, and she drank it all up. This water perhaps
may have been the acorn mush that was so good, which they gave her at the
house of Chinigchinix. She began to perspire and came to herself, the fever
letting loose of her, from which she recovered in a short time. The other
accounts that they relate are about the same as what has been related above.
Others relate, and this is handed down from antiquity, that when
the Indians died, although they burned them after death, the heart
did not burn, that is, the spirit or soul (for the heart of flesh of
course had to be consumed like the rest of the body), and that this
spirit or soul went to stay at another place, where Chinigchinix
destined it, but it is to be noted that if it was a chief or satrap, they
went to Heaven, and were placed among the stars, and therefore
they say that especially the planets and those large stars which are
very brilliant, are the souls of chiefs or Puplem. Note: The reason that
they give why only these latter should go to Heaven and become stars is that
Eno, who was the eater of [human] flesh, before they were cremated ate his
piece [of flesh] from them, but if it happened that the Eno did not eat of their
flesh, as in case by drowning or [of death] at the hands of their enemies, etc..
he [the chief or satrap] did not then go to Heaven, but to another place where
Chinigchinix destined him.
Others Chinigchinix stationed along the ocean shore or through the
hills, ranges, valleys or mountains, and there they remained without
the period of time being designated, but such time as Chinigchinix de-
sired, but what they became later, if they returned to their bodies
or went to another place, this they do not know. And if the Indians,
when going from one place to another, see or imagine [they see]
something extraordinary, they say that that is the soul of some dead
person, and they hold it a bad omen, fearing some misfortune, for
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
they are of the belief that if a dead person shows himself to someone,
it is to do injury to him, and particularly to the women, and there are
some imposters who pass themselves off as these ghosts, in order thus
to attain their desires. And this has happened many times, not only
when they were gentiles but even since they have become Christians.
And lastly others, and these the most pitiable and unhappy of all,
remained near their homes and those of their relatives, filling them with
dread and doing them certain injuries, and these are the ones for
whom their relatives did not lay on the pyre many feathers and other
things of the kind that they were accustomed to lay. And as confirma-
tion of this last point I shall relate a case which I myself witnessed
in part, and it was as follows: Inthe year of 1813, at the Mission of N.
[marginal annotation: San Luis Rey], there died a Christian Indian,
and the Indians said that another Indian, also a Christian of the same
Mission, had poisoned or bewitched him, whose death all believed came
from witchery. That dead man used to make every year his little
garden patch of corn, pumpkins, and watermelons. This same garden
patch he left to one of his relatives; and at the time when the plants
were in blossom, the said garden patch all got spoiled and dried up
without being able to harvest even a single fruit or grain, while it is
to be noted that when the plants were tender they were very luxuriant
like the neighboring ones and [those of] all the vicinity, but upon
blooming the plants died, and the Indians said (this they learned from
an old woman who had also told me about it), that the dead man was
walking all about through the plot and that he was killing all of it
little by little, which was whatever he touched. With this news I went
to see the prodigy and saw certain dead plants, but many of them
very luxuriant and fresh. The next day I returned to assure myself of
the truth, and I found 7 plants, some of them corn, some pumpkin,
some watermelon, dry and burnt to the roots, and it is to be noted
that I had myself pointed these out as being the most luxuriant ones.
And in this manner all of them dried up without harvesting a grain.
There is no doubt but that this is a little fable, but thus it happened.
The dead man had died of dysentery which had come from syphilis,
and therefore through the path of tuberculosis, without suffering any
bewitching or poisoning such as they said. That the dead man should
be walking through the plot killing the plants we see to be the story
of an old woman, because nobody saw him except the old woman. What
causes me confusion and difficulty is how such a catastrophe may have
originated, for it was not through lack of care, nor through an epidemic
of certain animals such as worms, gophers, etc., for in addition to the
fact that such were not seen, if the plant had been cut, it would have
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA——HARRINGTON 55
been withered, and not dry as if burned. The above, I believe, will
cause the reader astonishment. I exercised all possible diligence, be-
lieving that I could discover the cause, but I could not discover it
through natural means. Therefore I believe that it was performed by
the Devil, lest many escape from his hands. Concerning the above let
everyone deduce what seems to him best.
With what we have related it is easily recognized that their reports
on the immortality of the soul are nothing more than fabulous stories
and lies for deceiving the simple, causing them to believe that which
does not exist, and how slight must be their belief in the spiritual sub-
stance with which we are adorned, and this not only on the part of the
rudest and most ignorant ones of them, but on the part of those most
versed and best instructed in our holy religion. And lest anyone doubt
what has been said above and attribute it to my odd ideas, I shall re-
late 2 cases which happened in my time and at the very places where
I was residing.
In the year of 1808, if I am not mistaken, finding myself a mission-
ary at the Mission of N. [marginal annotation: La Purisima], a youth
about 23 years of age, raised with the priests from the time he was a
child, very well instructed in matters of religion, and a good speaker
of Spanish (for he served as interpreter for the priests), finding him-
self in a grave sickness, did not wish to subject to taking any medica-
ment or to receiving any of the advice which the priest gave him, but
the first thing that he did was to call one of their healers, who executed
with him all his diabolical art. Seeing that he was becoming continually
worse the priests exhorted him daily that he should confess and should
prepare himself for dying as a Christian, but the sick man intractably
was never willing to do so, arguing exemption from examination [on
the grounds] that he was still strong, and finally, that he did not ex-
pect to die since he had hope in his healer. The latter, seeing that his
lies were bringing no benefit, gave him up telling him that because he
had always believed the priests, his God, or better said the Devil, was
angry and for that reason was sending death upon him, and that he was
not able to cure him. When the poor fellow saw that there was no
remedy, he yielded to confess himself, but he did not confess with that
satisfaction which the priest desired, and he died shortly afterward.
In the year of 1817 an Indian at the Mission of N. [marginal anno-
tation: San Juan Capistrano], like the preceding a speaker of Spanish
and well instructed, fell ill with a serious sickness, of which he died,
and though the priests, relatives and friends exhorted him much
indeed to confess and receive as a Christian the holy sacraments, he
could not be reduced, becoming when this matter was mentioned to
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
on
him like one frantic and desperate,. bursting forth in blasphemies and
expressions of despair. A little before he died I went for the purpose
that he should confess and beg God’s pardon, exhorting him toward
His great mercy, in order that he might receive the sacrament of ex-
treme unction, but all was in vain, for he manifested such extreme
grief and displeasure, foaming at the mouth, his eyes glittering, that
he seemed to be truly condemned to hell, 3 men not being sufficient to
hold him in check. I indeed attributed all these extreme actions to the
violence of the disease, but when I had remained silent for a time, he
became calm, and someone asked him, saying: Why do you not con-
fess? And he answered in a tone of fury: Because I do not want to;
having lived deceived, I do not want to die deceived. And in a short
time he expired, his body remaining so ugly and horrible that it caused
fright. Let the reader imagine my feelings on beholding in my pres-
ence that sight in which I observed to the very letter that which David
tells us [marginal annotation: Psalm 111, last verse|: Peccator
videbit et irascetur dentibus suis fremet et tabecet [sic], desiderium
peccatorum peribit.
I reflect that some will probably tell me that in spite of the occur-
rence of the cases given above, they do not prove little faith and belief
on the part of all [the Indians], since everywhere rare and prodigious
cases occur which God permits through his inscrutable secrets, and
as a warning to others. This I admit and confess, but this I state : that
those [believing Indians] who form the exception are very few and
cases worthy of note, while in the general run all of them seem to me to
be the same, and I believe that anyone who has observed them will agree
with me; and the fact is that those [Indians] who appear to us to be
more intelligent are the very ones who leave us more deceived, for
since they conduct all their activities with malice [against us] while we
with simplicity show them trust in every matter, they deceive us at
every step. And this needs no proof, because we have all come into con-
tact with it through experience, and I believe that there is not a priest
in this Province who will not flatly confess the fact.
CHAPTER I4
THE ORIGIN OF THE INHABITANTS OF THIS MISSION.
Since all the knowledge of these Indians about their antiquities is
entirely fabulous, the present chapter, which deals with the first popu-
lators of this Mission and its environs, will not contain less that is
fabulous and ridiculous than the preceding ones. I write it merely in
order that we may know from what region they came and by what per-
sons they were chieftained, and also because it is a very strange and
curious account.
The place from which those who populated this Mission and its
environs came was a land or place called Sejat, at which place or
rancheria the inhabitants were called Pubuiem, which signifies : people
of the land or place Sejat (this place Sejat is distant from this Mission
about 7 or or 8 leagues, and it is in the valley which they call Los Nietos
Ranch). This city or rancheria of Sejat had many inhabitants. The
chief, named Oyaison, which means wise, and his wife, named Sirorum,
had 3 daughters, named Coronne, Uuinagram, and Uiuiojam. Chief
Oyaison after the death of his wife, seeing the multitude of people at
his rancheria and that the seeds which that country produced were
not sufficient for supporting that multitude, separated from the rest
many families of his rancheria, all those [families] which wished to
follow him, and with his oldest daughter, Coronne, they took trail in
a southerly direction in search of good sites for settling.
They came to a place about a quarter of a league before reaching
this Mission (I have not been able to determine, because the Indians
do not know, how many days or journeys they spent from the land
of Sejat to this place), where there is a spring of water. There they
halted and made a camp, since it appeared to them to be a place
suitable for living. When all of them had already settled at this
place, having built their houses and established their town, Chief
Oyaison returned to his country of Sejat, leaving with these new
settlers as chieftainess his daughter Coronne. The said Coronne was
an unmarried girl, but already grown up, ard to this place they gave
the name of Putuidem, which means navel sticking out, because the
said Coronne had a lump at her navel. Note:—The Indians do not know if
she had this lump which she had at her navel from the time she was born or if
it came out on her while they were staying at this place. It is very likely that
the said lump appeared while at this place, for if she had had it since her birth,
they would have named her Putuidem and not Coronne. Be the matter as it may,
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58 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
from that time on she was always called Putuidem, and this same place or
rancheria they named and now call Putuidem.
Seeing that the land was scant for so many people as were multiply-
ing and that they were having to go quite a distance from their ran-
cheria to hunt their seeds, some families began to remain at the same
places where they gathered, some of them building their houses at one
place, others at another, and thus were settled all the rancherias which
there were in this canyada of San Juan Capistrano. But it is to be noted
that all these families separated with the approval of Chieftainess
Putuidem.
At all the new settlements the oldest man of the family became chief,
and they called him Nu, and his second [they called] Eyacque, and as
regards their wives, the wife of Nu they called Coronne, and the wite
of the Eyacqtie [they called] Tepi. The name Coronne was in mem-
ory of Putuidem. And as regards Tepi, I do not know what ground
they may have had for giving her the name Tepi. The names Coronne
and Tepi signify those little animals which fly about, called ladybugs,
which live in the garden plots and fields. The red ladybugs they call
Coronne, and those yellow ones, gilt colored as it were, they call Tepi,
and these are the lineages of most noble blood, and they are all of this
great descent and race.
The said Putuidem gave a great feast, inviting all the new settlers,
it being that they were her people, the feast began with great
rejoicing and contentment of all of them dancing, eating and making
merry, but since there is no complete pleasure in this world, or true
joy, it befell that as the said Putuidem lay down on the ground, as
was her custom, on her back, the lump at her navel swelled up and
she turned into earth (and at the said place where the rancheria called
Putuidem was, amid some willows, there is a pile of earth, and the
Indians say that this pile of earth is the body of Puttidem). With
this event the feast came to an end, and the new settlers as well as
some of the inhabitants of the rancheria of Putuidem itself left for
their new settlements, and that night they put up at a place which
is about a hundred paces before reaching the Mission, and they called
the said [place] Acagchemem, the name of which the new settlers
of this canyada, or the entire tribe, took as their name. This name
Acagchemem signifies heaped up pile of something that moves, such
as an ant nest, nest of worms, or of other animals together in a
heap. Others apply the name Acagchemem also to inanimate things,
but it seems that the proper meaning applies to animate things.
The reason or cause which these Indians may have had for calling
themselves, and their entire tribe, Acagchemem, I have not been able
NO. 4 NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON 59
to determine, for it seems that they ought rather to be called Pubuiem,
since they came from the land Sejat, whose people were called Pu-
buiem, and they also were called thus until they came to settle these
lands [here]. The reason that these Indians had for taking the name
Acagchemem and abandoning that of Pubuiem I conjecture may
have been, inasmuch as Acagchemem signifies heaped up pile of some-
thing alive, because they may have slept that night which they spent
at the place mentioned above all heaped together, men, women, boys
and girls, and the next day when they got up they may have said
Acagchemem, as if to say: we have all been together in a heap, and
from this their name may have followed: those who were heaped
together ; this is my way of thinking.
It may also have happened that they found at that place some
kind of a pile of animals and called them Acagchemem; but if that
had been the case, the place only would have been called Acagchemem,
and not the people or tribe. I incline to what I have suggested above,
and it seems very probable, because it is the custom of the Indians
that when they get together they pile up some on top of the rest.
It is to be noted that before they came to settle this canyada of
San Juan Capistrano, they spoke somewhat differently from the
language which they now speak. What was spoken at Sejat appears
to have been the Gabrielino language, and these [people here] have
it very much corrupted, but nevertheless it can be recognized as
having been the same, for among their common and general terms
they use some of the same ones, except for the accent and a few
letters more or less. The reason that they speak the language which
they use today is that Chief Oyaison when they came to these lands
taught them while on the way the language which they at present
speak, telling them that since they were changing country they had
to change language, and this is the reason why they are different from
their relatives of Sejat.
The name Sejat signifies place of wild bees, or jicotes as the
California Spanish people call them, for Seja in the language of the
natives is jicote, and seja pepau is the honey of the jicotes, and in
these regions there are many of these swarms or hives underground.
eee Ee
CHAPTER 15
ABOUT THE RANCHERIAS INHABITED BY THESE INDIANS.
Since the preceding chapter deals with the first settlers of this
canyada of San Juan Capistrano and its environs, it will be fitting
to give the towns or rancherias that were founded by the above
mentioned new comers from the territory of Sejat and their de-
scendants, giving in detail the names of the rancherias with their
meanings and the name of the first chief of each of them.
1. The first rancheria or town which was founded in this canyada
was the one called Putuidem, as we gave in the preceding chapter
together with what the name Putuidem signifies. This was founded
by Chief Oyaison and his daughter Coronne, or Putuidem. After
what happened to the said Putuidem there entered into rule as chief
one named Choqual, which means lift it wp! He was a very near
relative of Chief Oyaison.
2. The second was called Atoum-pumcaxque [or i for c| (which
is the place where the Mission is located). This name signifies a
kind of little animals which according to what they have told me
are similar to yellowjackets, but small, like big ants, which came out
from underneath the ground. I have not seen these animals, nor
are they seen at present anywhere around, for they say that from
the time the Mission was established at this place they disappeared
and they have not been seen any more. The reason that these insects
came to an end I attribute to this canyada having been a thick
growth of willows, cottonwoods, sycamores, fuchsias, beds of reeds,
all of it being a marsh of water, and when after the establishment of
the Mission the ground was begun to be cleared off for cultivation,
these animals may have found themselves deprived of a breeding place
and with the cultivation of the ground they may have come to an end.
The chief of this rancheria was the same Choqual, [also chief] of
the preceding one.
3. The third was called Ulbe, which signifies California Sage-
brush. This is a kind of chamizo similar to rosemary and it has almost
the same virtues. The Indians do not fail to use it in certain of
their diseases. The chief of this rancheria was called Temiachocot,
which signifies place or locality where much willow grows.
4. The fourth was called Tébone, which signifies an herb which
grows in the seashore lagoon at the mouth of the creek estuary at
60
NO. A! NEW ORIGINAL BOSCANA—HARRINGTON OI
the beach at the port of this Mission, and the Indians used it among
their foods. Its chief was named Tobalauc, which means very much
wrinkled old man.
5. The fifth was called Efe. This name signifies a plant which
grows in these environs and along the ocean shore, which plant
produces on the surface of its leaves a salt which the Indians used
with some of their foods, especially with chia. This salt seems to me
a very good purgative, since it is milder than sea salt and other
purgative salts. The chief of this rancheria was named Sidoc, which
means a jet of water which issues from a place that is dammed up;
and at the said place in a gulch there is a lake of water and at one
side there runs out a little jet of water.
6. The sixth was named Panga, which signifies canyada. This
is the place which since the time of the arrival of the discoverers has
been called San Mateo. Its chief was named Seqitilqitix, which
means plant which dries up.
7. The seventh was called Souche, which signifies little canyada
or gulch. This was located near the preceding. Its chief was named
Toroc, which means to limp or to sprain one’s foot.
8. The eighth was called Tobe, which signifies a kind of clay or
fine argil, white, similar to white lead, with which the women painted
themselves. Its chief was named Quapchocops, which means care
taker, or watchful.
g. The ninth was called Tumume, which means a flat place, better
said, a bench on a hill. Its chief was named Temex, which means
stumbler.
10. The tenth was called Tepipche, which signifies a kind of bush
or chamizo (I am not acquainted with it, nor do I know its proper
name), which the natives call Tapipche [sic]. Its chief was named
Paat, which means mountain sheep.
11. The eleventh was called Ecjeline, which signifies a kind of seed,
of the plant which is called Wild Amaranth, and it is one of their
particular foods. Its chief was named Taclet, which means hump-
backed or crook-backed.
12. The twelfth was called Tajé, which signifies flint arrowhead.
Its chief was named Gualua, which means drag it.
13. The thirteenth was called Usit, which signifies the little stick
[foreshaft] which they put on their arrows. It is to be noted that
it is a special kind of bush. Its chief was named Uchat, which
means all unanimous.
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
14. The fourteenth was called Alume, which signifies to raise the
head in looking upward. This alludes to this rancheria having been
located at the foot of a very high mountain which today is called El
Trabuco. Its chief was named Cusuol, which means severed, or cut.
15. The fifteenth was called Usxme, which signifies rose, and in
this country there are many of these roses. They are small, having
5 or 6 petals, very odoriferous, and bear a fruit shaped like a pear,
but tiny or small, which also served the Indians as food. Its chief was
named Chululeck, which means hair tied up on top of the head, or
insignium of a chief.
These are the 15 rancherias or towns which were founded by the
first settlers of this Canyada of San Juan Capistrano and its en-
virons. It is to be reflected that they must have been settled not all
at a single time, but little by little, some later than others, according
as was found more convenient and to the purpose. It also should be
noted that since these Indians never lived fixed in a single place, but
moved from time to time from one place to another depending on
the seeds, there were always some unoccupied rancherias.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 5
Arthur jfund
COLONIAL FORMATION OF UNICELLULAR
GREEN ALGAE UNDER VARIOUS
LIGHT CONDITIONS
(WitH THREE PLATES)
BY
FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3256)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OCTOBER 8, 1934
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Arthur Fund -
COLONIAL FORMATION OF UNICELLULAR GREEN
ALGAE, UNDER VARIOUS LIGHT CONDITIONS:
By FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(WirH THREE PLATES)
INTRODUCTION
Light of certain ranges of wave lengths and intensity is generally
considered essential for the formation of chlorophyll in green plants.
A number of green algae, mosses, and pine seedlings prove to be
exceptions to this generalization. For example, Scenedesmus ob-
tusiusculus Chodat and Scenedesmus chlorelloides Chodat develop and
maintain their green chlorophyll better in darkness than in light.
Different green algae, however, vary in their reactions to light con-
ditions just as different higher plants vary in their reactions to
temperature and other environmental conditions. Chlorella rubescens
Chodat forms chlorophyll in the dark but not so vigorously as in
the light, while the cells of Scenedesmus quadricauda are dark green
in diffuse light and pale green in direct light.
The ability of these plants to form chlorophyll without the aid of
natural or artificial light is generally attributed to the presence of
assimilable carbohydrates in the nutrient solution in which they are
growing. Chodat (1913) has shown in the case of Stichococcus bacil-
laris that when a carbohydrate is assimilated with difficulty or not
assimilated at all by an alga in the dark as demonstrated by its de-
coloration or complete lack of growth, the growth and development
of chlorophyll by the same alga in the light is not prevented in the
slightest degree. Chodat carried on a long series of experiments to
determine the type of sugar best assimilated by certain algae growing
in darkness. For that reason, further discussion of the necessary
nutriments will not be treated here.
1 This paper reports investigations made under a grant from the National
Research Council to the author as National Research Fellow in the Biological
Sciences from July 1931 to 1933.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 5
tO
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The experiment described below is one carried out preliminary to
an elaborate piece of research under definitely controlled conditions
on the effect of light intensity and wave length on algae. A number
of different algae from my collection in pure culture were studied to
determine their general reaction to natural and artificial light and to
total absence of light.
I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Earl S. Johnston, As-
sistant Director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smith-
sonian Institution, for his aid and suggestions. I am also very grateful
to Dr. W. T. Swingle, of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, for his cooperation in obtaining the excellent color plates of
the algal cultures made by Marcel L. F. Foubert, of the Photographic
Division of the Department of Agriculture.
DISCUSSION OF LITERATURE
Numerous workers have studied the effect of varying day lengths
on higher plants. The recent work by Arthur (1930), Garner and
Allard (1925), and Shirley (1929) covers the field very well, and
their long lists of literature references are an indication of the work
done on this subject from the time of Hervé Mangon (1861), who
found that grain planted in darkness turned yellow while that in
electric light was green and thriving, up to the present when the
beneficial amount of artificial light that should supplement winter
daylight has been ascertained for various plants. References to the
effect of light and darkness on lower plants are not as abundant.
Klebs (1896) studied the effect of light and darkness on gamete
formation in Chlamydomonas media Klebs and demonstrated that
only vegetative division takes place in darkness. A 2 percent sugar
solution aided growth but did not entirely replace the light.
Etard and Bouilhac (1898) recorded the presence of chlorophyll
in a Nostoc cultivated in the dark in a nutrient solution to which
glucose had been added. They extracted the chlorophyll with alcohol
and found the resulting yellow-green solution showed a red fluores-
cence and had the following absorption bands: 6900 to 6500 A, 6310
to 6060 A, 5890 to 5680 A, and 5480 to 5360 A.
Artari (1899, 1900, 1902) studied Pleurococcus and Scenedesmus
in media containing peptone, glucose, maltose, beet sugar, or mannite
and found growth in conjunction with chlorophyll formation taking
place not only in the light without carbon dioxide but also in absolute
darkness. He also reported chlorophyll formation in the dark for
NO: 5 COLONIAL FORMATION OF GREEN ALGAE—MEIER 3
Stichococcus bacillaris, Chlorococcum infusionum, Chlorella vulgaris,
Raphidium polymorphum, and the gonidia of certain lichens. He
showed that the formation and quantity of chlorophyll was de-
pendent on nitrogenous conditions and carbon sources in the solution.
However, different algae vary in this respect.
Radais (1900) grew Chlorella vulgaris on steamed potato slices and
malt extract in light and darkness between 12° and 38° C. (25°C.
optimum). The multiplication of the alga was similar in light and
in darkness, and when both sets of cultures were dissolved in alcohol
and examined spectroscopically, their absorption spectrum at 1/500
concentration was found to be 6910 to 6450 A, 6280 to 6040 A, and
5920 to 5670 A. A carbon bisulphide solution of the chlorophyll gave
the same absorption spectrum but with a shift toward the red and
very slight differences in the borders of the bands. Both dark and
light cultures gave identical absorption bands. By dilution, the two
bands of shorter wave lengths disappeared, but the band 6910 to
6450 A was still visible at a concentration of 1/100000.
Matruchot and Molliard (1902) reported green cells in Stichococ-
cus bacillaris major Naegeli growing in darkness.
Grintzesco (1903), experimenting with Chlorella vulgaris Beyer-
inck, found that too much light—that is, direct sunlight—is unfavor-
able and injures the cell membrane. The algae developed well in
electric light, but no intensity data are given. The cultures growing
in darkness on agar with an addition of 2 percent glucose were a
beautiful green and presented a better growth than those in flasks
placed in light. His cultures of Scenedesmus acutus Meyen were 3
to 4 times smaller in darkness than in light, but they were green.
Muenscher (1923) grew a Chlorella in diffuse light and in total
absence of light for 105 and 235 days in a nutrient solution to which
nitrogen was supplied either as calcium nitrate or ammonium sul-
phate. He states that Chlorella can synthesize proteins in total dark-
ness when nitrogen is supplied in inorganic combination.
Colla (1930) found that the chloroplasts of Chlorella were dis-
colored when grown on flint stone in a petri dish of Detmer solution
for 35 days. He does not mention the presence of glucose in his
solution. He then irradiated the alga for 2 hours daily, and the
chloroplastids became intensely green the third day. He repeated the
experiment with Elodea canadensis which had become etiolated after
growing for 1 month in darkness on dampened cotton. After 2 days
of irradiation of 7 hours daily the chlorophyll reappeared in the cells
of the plant. He found very little variation in the chlorophyll ab-
sorption bands of the normal and the irradiated plants.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Meier (1929) proved that light is not necessary for the formation
of chlorophyll and carotin in the cells of Chlorella rubescens Chodat,
Scenedesmus obtusiusculus Chodat, and Scenedesmus chlorelloides
Chodat when an abundant quantity of nitrate and glucose are present
in the medium upon which they are growing.
METHOD
The medium on which the algae were grown for these experiments
was Detmer solution made up in the following proportions :
Grams
Ealeiunianitrate te tk seiner ee eee oe cer meee ere 1s
Potassiummchlorides seas Meee ee eeer oer 0.25
Magnesiumeasulphate ci: o.<tee sesceictoee aes oe ete 0.25
Botassiummaciduphosphatenesrcriscie sero eenee iter 0.25
Distilledivwater cerca ec. euctetcnrstouse erly ore eee racine 1000.
Fernic. ‘Chloride sata cian ccceree eiatedercoretertetonencroe ke er eteaee ts 0.002
The solution was diluted to 4 for this experiment, then 2 percent
dextrose and 2 percent difco-bacto agar were added.
Nine series of 18 different algae were inoculated in 125-cc Erlen-
meyer flasks each containing 75 cc of the above medium. Three in-
oculations were made on the surface of the solid medium in each
flask by means of a platinum needle. The necessary precautions were
taken for strict sterilization. All the algae used were from pure cul-
tures, the majority of which had been isolated by the author.
The following set of nine treatments was given to each alga:
Control in intermittent light (daylight) during 2 months.
2. Intermittent light for 1 month, then placed in continuous light (electric
light) for 1 month.
3. Intermittent light for 1 month, then placed in continuous darkness for I
month.
4. Continuous darkness during 2 months.
5. Continuous darkness for 1 month, then placed in intermittent light for I
month.
6. Continuous darkness for 1 month, then placed in continuous light for 1
month.
7. Continuous light during 2 months.
8. Continuous light for 1 month, then placed in intermittent light for 1 month.
9. Continuous light for 1 month, then placed in continuous darkness for I
month.
The schematic outline of the treatments is as follows:
Intermittent Continuous Continuous
E light darkness light
Day 1 (Inoculation)
Daye Qe dened wrens levecee Meas 5A nG FSA
Day BO ckwinn eae out ees TS aS 3 A0 7 (2-6
Day 60 (End of experiment)
NO. 5 COLONIAL FORMATION OF GREEN ALGAE—MEIER 5
The continuous light was supplied by four 300-watt Mazda day-
light lamps so placed that there was a distance of 92 centimeters
from the filament to the top of the table on which were the flasks
containing the algae. The intensity as measured by the thermocouple
was 60 microwatts per square millimeter per second, which is about
the same as 1/10 of noon sunlight in the summer.
The continuous darkness was provided by placing the flasks of
algae in a tightly closed closet in a concrete pier in a basement room
that as a rule is kept dark continually, and if lighted is illuminated
by a red lamp.
The intermittent light and darkness were natural day and night
conditions in March and April in a north window of the flag tower
of the Smithsonian Institution.
RESULTS
All the results have been tabulated on pages 9-12 for convenient
reference.
CHLOROPHYLL FORMATION
Eleven varieties were equally green in all nine treatments at the
end of 30 days. However, in the following cultures a variation in
chlorophyll content was indicated by a difference in color: Oocystis
naegelii and Chlorella vulgaris var., in all nine treatments ; Scenedes-
mus quadricauda, very evident change in the cultures in continuous
darkness, slight differences in color in the cultures in intermittent and
continuous light ; Chlorococcum viscosum in intermittent light and in
continuous darkness; Cystococcus irregularis in continuous light ;
Coccomyxa viridis in continuous light and in intermittent light ; and
Palmellococcus protothecoides in all cultures except treatment 5.
After 60 days seven algae showed abundant chlorophyll in all nine
treatments. This included the following varieties: Scenedesmus
chlorelloides var., Heterococcus viridis, Chlorella viscosa, Chlamy-
domonas intermedia, Oocystis nacgelti, Cystococcus cohaerens var.,
and Chlorococcum viscosum.
Six varieties had very little or no chlorophyll in any of the cultures
at the end of 60 days. Among these were Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella
vulgaris var., Palmellococcus variegatus, Scenedesmus flavescens, Pal-
mellococcus protothecoides, and Coccomyxa viridis. But after the 30-
day period, the following were still green: Palmellococcus variegatus
and Scenedesmus flavescens in the cultures that had been kept in in-
termittent light and in continuous darkness, Palmellococcus proto-
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
thecoides in the culture kept in continuous darkness, and Chlorella
vulgaris in the culture kept in intermittent light.
Two varieties, Scenedesmus quadricauda and Coccomy.xa viridis,
were all slightly off-color, being a more or less pale or mottled green.
Cystococcus irregularis cultures in treatments 2, 6, and 7 were also
off-color.
Cystococcus irregularis had green colonies in treatments 1, 5, 8,
3, 4, and 9.
Coccomyxa simplex retained chlorophyll in treatments 1, 5, 8, 3,
and 2. At the end of 30 days all the cultures had been equally green.
Haematococcus pluvialis was green only in treatments 1, 5, and 8.
At the end of the 30-day period it had also been green in 4, 5, and 6.
Scenedesmus quadricauda formed a green culture in intermittent
light.
Stichococcus bacillaris was greenest in 3, 4, and 9 at the end of
60 days; at the end of 30 days the cultures in 4, 5, and 6 were a
little greener than those in the other six treatments.
DECOLORATION AT THE END OF 60 DAYS
Decoloration was evident in all the cultures of Chlorella vulgaris
var.; in Chlorella vulgaris in 3, 4, and g and in 2, 6, and 7; in Coc-
comyxa simplex in 4, 9, 6; in Palmellococcus protothecoides; and in
Cystococcus cohaerens in 1, 8, 4, 9, 2, 6, and 7. Decoloration (rose
color) was beginning to appear in Palmellococcus variegatus under
conditions 8, 3, 9, 2, 6, and 7; and in Coccomyxa simplex in 7.
CAROTIN FORMATION
Five of the 18 algae formed carotin. Chlorella vulgaris and Scene-
desmus flavescens had orange-colored colonies in all the treatments.
The greatest amount of carotin was formed for Chlorella vulgaris in
intermittent light and for Scenedesmus flavescens in intermittent light
and in continuous light. Beads of carotin were also formed for
Chlorella vulgaris var. in 1, 8, 3, 4, 2, 6, and 7: for Palmellococcus
variegatus in I, 5, 3, 4, and 2; and for Palmellococcus protothecoides
in 4.
HAEMATOCHROME
Haematochrome was formed in Haematococcus pluvialis in 2, 6,
7,4,and 9. The greatest amount was in treatment 2, the culture kept
in intermittent light the first month and in continuous light the second
month.
NO. 5 COLONIAL FORMATION OF GREEN ALGAE—MEIER
Ni
GROWTH AND GENERAL DEVELOPMENT
In the majority of the varieties studied, the growth and develop-
ment of the colony attained its maximum at the end of 30 days, and
with the exception of the algae listed below, the colonies showed no
increase in size after the first month. These exceptions are Chlorella
vulgaris in 5, 1, 2, 7, 8 and 9; Palmellococcus variegatus in 5, 2, 3, 7,
8, and 9; Chlorella vulgaris var. in all nine treatments ; Chlorococcum
viscosum in all nine treatments; Scenedesmus quadricauda in 7, 8,
9; Oocystis naegelii in 4 and 6; Heterococcus viridis in 2 and 5;
Scenedesmus chlorelloides var. in 2.
In general, the colonies made the same amount of growth and were
approximately the same size in all nine treatments. There were strik-
ing exceptions, however, in the following cases as indicated in the
table and plates 2 and 3. Palmellococcus variegatus in 2 and 5;
Scenedesmus chlorelloides var. in 2; Chlamydomonas intermedia in 4;
Ffeterococcus viridis in 5 and 2; Cystococcus cohaerens var. in 2 and 3;
Chlorococcum viscosum in 1, 2, 3, and 9; Chlorella vulgaris var. in
2, 4, 5, and 6; and Chlorella vulgaris in 1 and 5.
Those cultures that showed remarkably poor growth were Chloro-
coccum viscosum in 6; and Chlorella vilgaris in 4, 6, and 3.
There were striking morphological differences in some colonies of
the same alga subjected to different conditions. The disks of Chlorella
vulgaris in 1, 5, 8 were firm and sectored ; in 3, 4, 9 they had a moist
appearance ; and in 2, 6, 7 they appeared to be very dry. Coccomyxa
viridis had very firm colonies in 1, 5, 8 and in 2, 6, 7, but those in
3, 4, 9 were very fluid. Cystococcus irregularis in 1, 3, 2 and 6 were
characteristically wrinkled, while those in 7, 8 and 9 were smooth
little peaks. For Scenedesmus quadricauda in 1, 4, 6 all the three
colonies were run together in brilliant liquid masses, in 2 and 7 the
colonies were finely nerved; while in 8 and 9 they were mottled and
distinct. Chlorococcum viscosum in 2, 6 and.7 had dull disks while
the other six treatments caused glistening and brilliant colonies. The
colonies of Stichococcus bacillaris were firm, and rough with tiny
excrescences, shining brightly with the exception of those in 3, 4, 9 and
2 which were dull. The cultures of Oocystis naegelii were smooth,
brilliant, and fluid with the exception of 6 and 7, which were wrinkled,
dry, and dull, and 2, which had smooth, dry, and dull colonies. The
colonies of Chlamydomonas intermedia were brilliant in three treat-
ments but in 2, 6, 7 were dull, while 3, 4, 9 caused a curdled ap-
pearance. Heterococcus viridis had dry, dull disks in 1, 8, 2, 6, and 7
but brilliant, moist ones in 5, 3, 4, and 9. Chlorella viscosa in 2, 6, 7
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
had wrinkled disks but brilliant, smooth ones in the other six treat-
ments. Scenedesmus chlorelloides var. had moist colonies in 1, 5, 8,
and dull, dry ones in the other six treatments.
SUMMARY
Of 18 varieties of unicellular green algae, 11 developed chlorophyll
while growing for 30 days in continuous light, in natural conditions
of intermittent light and dark, and in continuous darkness. The other
7 varieties showed individual reactions to the different treatments ;
3 showed poor development in all of the conditions ; 2 algae had the
best chlorophyll formation in continuous darkness and in intermittent
light ; 1 grew best in continuous light; and 1 variety developed best
in continuous darkness. Seven of the 11 algae still maintained their
chlorophyll at the end of 60 days, although the growth and develop-
ment of each colony had attained its maximum at the end of 30 days.
Decoloration was manifested in all the cultures of I alga and in
some treatments of 6 other algae.
Five of the 18 algae formed carotin, 2 of the 5 in all the treatments,
the greatest amount being formed in intermittent light.
Haematochrome was formed in I variety to the largest extent in
continuous light and least in those cultures exposed to intermittent
light during the last 30 days of their development.
The colonies differed greatly in morphological appearance.
gy
OF GREEN ALGAE—MEIER
ORMATION
COLONIAL I
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NO. 5 COLONIAL FORMATION OF GREEN ALGAE—MEIER 13
EXPLANATION OF PLATES
1D AG WOR |
Cystococcus cohaerens var. (X approx. }) grown on Detmer 4-agar 2 percent-
dextrose 2 percent in intermittent light for one month. The algae in
plates 2 and 3 were cultured in a similar manner.
PLATE 2
Chlorella vulgaris, X approx.
Nie
PLATE 3
Chlorococcum viscosum, < approx. 5.
(Figure numbers refer to both plates.)
Fic. 1. Intermittent light for 3 months.
2. Intermittent light for 1 month, continuous light for 2 months.
3. Intermittent light for 1 month, continuous darkness for 2 months.
4. Continuous darkness for 3 months.
5. Continuous darkness for 1 month, intermittent light for 2 months.
6. Continuous darkness for 1 month, continuous light for 2 months.
7. Continuous light for 3 months.
8. Continuous light for 1 month, intermittent light for 2 months.
g. Continuous light for 1 month, continuous darkness for 2 months.
10. Continuous darkness for 3 months.
It. Continuous light for 3 months.
Fic. 1-9. Colonies on Detmer }-agar 2 percent-dextrose 2 percent.
Fics. 10-11. Colonies on Detmer 4-agar 2 percent.
TERA TURE CELE)
ARTARI, ALEXANDER
1899. Ueber die Entwicklung der griinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Be-
dingungen der Kohlensaure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat.
Moscou, pp. 39-47.
1900. Ueber die Entwicklung der griinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Be-
dingungen der Kohlensaure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat.
Moscou, pp. 37-47.
1902. Ueber die Bildung des Chlorophyls durch grtine Algen. Ber. Deutsch.
bot. Ges., Bund 20, pp. 201-207.
ARTHUR, JOHN M.
1930. Light and the green plant. Scientific Monthly, vol. 31, pp. 343-346.
Cuopat, R.
1913. Monographies d’algues en culture pure. Matériaux pour la Flore
Cryptogamique Suisse, vol. 4, fasc. 2, Berne.
CoLtLa, SILVIA
1930. Formazione della clorofilla nelle piante exposte alla luce de Wood.
Annali di Botanica, vol. 18, pp. 329-340.
Erarp, A., AND BouILHac
1898. Présence des chlorophylles dans un Nostoc cultivé a l’abri de la
lumiére. C. R. Acad. Sci., tome 127, pp. 119-121.
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
GARNER, W. W., AND ALLARD, H. A.
1920. Effect of the relative length of day and night and other factors of
the environment on growth and reproduction in plants. Journ.
Agric. Res., vol. 18, pp. 553-600.
GRINTZESCO, JEAN
1903. Contribution a l’étude des Protococcacées. Chlorella vulgaris, Beyer-
inck. Rev. Géné. Bot., tome 15, pp. 5-19, 67-82.
Kress, GEORG
1896. Die Bedingungen der Fortpflanzung bei einigen Algen und Pilzen,
PP. 431-432, Jena.
Mancon, HERVE
1861. Production de la matiére verte des feuilles sous l’influence de la
lumiére électrique. C. R. Acad. Sci., tome 53, pp. 243-244.
MartrucnHot, L., anp MoiirArp, M.
1902. Variations de structure d’une algue verte sous l’influence du milieu
nutritif. Rév. Géné. Bot., tome 40, pp. 114-130, 254-268.
Meter, FLORENCE E.
1929. Recherches expérimentales sur la formation de la carotine chez les
Algues vertes unicellulaires et sur la production de la gelée chez
un Stichococcus (S. mesenteroides). Bull. Soc. Bot. Geneve, vol.
21(1), pp. 161-197.
1933. Cultivating algae for scientific research. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Inst. for 1932, pp. 373-383.
MUuENSCHER, W. C.
1923. Protein synthesis in Chlorella. Bot. Gaz., vol. 75, pp. 249-267.
RADAIS
1900. Sur la culture pure d’une algue verte; formation de chlorophylle a
lobscurité. C. R. Acad. Sci., tome 130, pp. 793-796.
SHIRLEY, H. L.
1929. Influence of light intensity and light quality upon the growth of
plants. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Plant Res., Inc., vol. 2,
no. 3, pp. 159-104.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOCE OAT NG Si le lsed
CYSTOCOCCUS COHAERENS VAR., X APPROX. 34
(For explanation, see page 13.)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLAN EOUS COLLECTIONS
CHLORELLA VULGARIS, X APPROX. 4
(For explanation, see page 13")
VO. 92%) NO Sy Rese
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92. NO. 5, PL.
Kho
nN
co |
10 I
CHLOROCOCCUM VISCOSUM, X APPROX. 1,
(For explanation, see page 13.)
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 6
Frthur jFund
Bree els OF INTENSITIES AND* WAVE
LENGTHS OF LIGHT ON UNICELLULAR
GREEN ALGAE
(WitH THREE PLATES)
BY
FLORENGE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3257)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OCTOBER 11, 1934
The Lord Baltimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. A.
Arthur jJFund
HRPECTS OF INPENSITIES AND WAVE LENGTHS OF
BIGHT ON UNICELEULAR GREEN ALGAE +
By FLORENCE E. MEIER
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(With THREE PLATES)
INTRODUCTION
Unicellular green algae are admirably adapted to the study of the
effectiveness of light intensity and light of different wave lengths on
chlorophyll formation and on growth as defined by multiplication of
cells. Their chief advantages as subjects of experimentation are:
(1) their small size, the mechanism of photosynthesis being complete
in the microscopic individual with its green chloroplast ; (2) the uni-
formity of their surfaces, since each cell in those varieties that do not
form zoospores may be considered comparable to every other one
placed in a symmetrical environment; (3) their mode of growth in
nutrient solution; and (4) the comparative ease of controlling the
temperature and humidity conditions.
Control of the environment of algae as regards culture medium,
temperature, and illumination was made the primary consideration in
these experiments conducted in an effort to determine the reaction of
algae to light. The importance of controlled conditions especially in
matters of light intensity and wave length is easily seen when one
reads through the literature. A few results of other investigators are
reviewed.
I wish to express my deep appreciation to Dr. C. G. Abbot, Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution, and to Dr. Earl S. Johnston,
Assistant Director of the Division of Radiation and Organisms, for
their assistance in the completion of this piece of research. [ am
also very grateful to the other members of the Division of Radiation
and Organisms, whose united efforts have made possible these
experiments.
1 This paper reports investigations made under a grant from the National
Research Council to the author as National Research Fellow in the Biological
Sciences from July 19031 to July 1033.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 6
tN
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
RESULTS OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS
As early as 1861 Sachs (1864) originated the well-known method
of growing plants in double-walled glass cylinders to determine the
effects of colored lights. The cylinders contained respectively solu-
tions of ammoniacal copper oxide for blue light, and potassium di-
chromate for orange light. No coloring solution was used with the
third cylinder. He reported that plants needed from 4 to 6 days more
in blue light than in orange light to unfold their leaflike cotyledons
which remained smaller in the former so that the lamina in orange
light was 2 to 3 times larger than in blue light, but largest of all in
white light. Regarding leaf formation, the orange light acted as a
lesser, the blue as a higher, degree of darkness. There was no for-
mation of organic substance in the blue light, while a small amount
was ‘formed in orange light.
Pfeffer (1871) also working with double-walled cylinders of solu-
tions found the following percentages of growth under the filters:
46.1 percent, yellow; 32.1 percent, red and orange; 15.0 percent,
green; and 7.6 percent, blue, violet, and indigo. Later,.in 1872, work-
ing with a prism he again found the maximum growth in the yellow.
Weber (1875) working with colored glasses as filters obtained
similar results but in the following different percentages: 82.6 per-
cent, yellow; 35.5 percent, red; 22.4 percent, blue; and 14.5 percent,
violet.
Wiesner (1877) used a filter of potassium dichromate which trans-
mitted the less refrangible half of the spectrum: red, orange, yellow,
and a part of green; and also ammoniacal copper oxide which allows
the passage of the remainder of the visible rays, the rest of the green
and all of the blue and violet. He observed that the plants in weak
light became greener sooner under yellow but in strong light sooner
under blue. He believed rapid destruction accompanies chlorophyll
formation in strong yellow or strong blue light which might not act
directly upon the chlorophyll already formed but might have a harm-
ful effect upon some process antecedent to chlorophyll formation.
Zachariewicz (1895), Flammarion (1897), and Strohmer and Stift
(1905) agree that the maximum chlorophyll production is in the
yellow rays.
Artari (1899) observed that blue-violet light accelerated the de-
velopment of Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii.
Teodoresco (1899) using filters made up of chemical solutions
studied the growth of corn in regions of the spectrum corresponding
to the general chlorophyll absorption bands. Growth was found to be
NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 3
best in the blue and violet, 5220 to 4260 A; less favorable in the red
and a small part of the orange, to 6130 A; and poorest in the
green, 5680 to 5240 A. Chlorophyll was present in all the regions
of the spectrum studied separately.
Thirty years later Teodoresco (1929) reports about 170 experi-
ments in which he investigated two main regions of the visible spec-
trum, using both colored solutions and glass filters. He measured
the energy transmitted through both sets of filters by means of a
thermopile and a galvanometer and equalized the intensities. In mea-
suring the light intensity he used a screen of water and copper acetate
to eliminate the effect of the infrared radiation. Using a variety of
hepatics, vascular cryptogams, and phanerogams, Teodoresco found
that in the red-orange, 7750 to 6440 A, the general configuration of the
plant was abnormal, while in the blue, 5090 to 3660 A, the general ap-
pearance of the plant was normal and similar to plants grown in the
shade or in white light. Fern germination was retarded in the blue
light.
Nadson (1910) grew Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli under bell
jars of colored solutions and found that red-yellow light caused ab-
normally shaped cells and disorganized chromatophores of a pale
yellow-green color. Cultures, 3 to 6 months old, grown in blue light
finally attained a stage of development similar to the cultures in white
light which were more normal in color and morphology.
Otto Thelen (1910), growing oats, beans, and other plants under
light filters, obtained maximum production in the bright yellow and
yellow-red light ; the bright red light gave more than a third less dry
weight, the blue still less, and the red and dark red, the least. The
plants grown in white light produced almost as much dry weight as
those grown under the yellow-red filter.
Dangeard (1912) immersed a piece of white blotting paper into a
culture flask of Chlorella vulgaris growing in Knop solution, stretched
it on the wall of a culture dish, and radiated it in a quartz spectrograph.
The maximum action of the rays as indicated by the differences of
vegetation was in the chlorophyll absorption bands. The algae grew
best in the region 6700 to 6600 A, less in regions 6800 to 6700 A
and 6600 to 6300 A, with a feebler growth in 6300 to 6000 A, and a
very feeble growth in the range 6000 to 5700 A. No trace of the
alga was visible from 5200 to 4000 A.
Klebs (1916-1917) showed that very striking formative changes
can be induced in prothallia placed in different regions of the visible
spectrum. He indicated that intensity and duration of light as well
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
as other environmental factors may bring about similar effects. This
demonstrates the importance of measuring or recording all these
factors in any study of the effect of light on plants.
Schanz (1919) grew higher plants in eight beds covered with
various kinds of glass. In the first five beds the range of wave lengths
of light transmitted was gradually decreased from the violet end of
the spectrum toward the red, thus making possible the study of the
effect of light from which greater and greater regions of the spectrum
were eliminated in the blue-violet end. Combinations of colored
glasses which gave predominating colors of yellow, green, and blue-
violet were used in the last three beds. He found that chlorophyll
development in beans, soybeans, and potatoes was more rapid the
more the short rays were cut off, being most rapid under red light.
In lettuce, chlorophyll developed fully under blue-violet rays but
not in normal quantity in yellow or green light. Schanz did not mea-
sure the light intensity, nor does he give accurate information con-
cerning temperature and other factors that possibly varied under the
different types of glass.
Popp (1926) grew a number of higher plants in greenhouses under
glasses transmitting only definite regions of the spectrum. The plants
receiving no wave lengths shorter than 5290 A or 4720 A had a good
development of chlorophyll and were somewhat similar to those
grown under reduced light intensity. There was very little difference
between plants that received all the rays of the spectrum of daylight
and those from which only ultraviolet rays were eliminated. Popp
claims that light intensity was not an important factor in his experi-
ment for the following reason: The plants grew normally and vigor-
ously in the full spectrum of daylight at an intensity that was at all
times lower than that of the house in which all wave lengths shorter
than 4720 A were removed and only slightly greater than that of the
house in which wave lengths shorter than 5290 A were eliminated.
Sayre (1928) investigated the development of chlorophyll in seed-
lings under Corning glass ray filters and found that wave lengths of
radiant energy longer than 6800 A are not effective in the formation
of chlorophyll in corn, wheat, oats, barley, beans, sunflowers, and
radishes, but that all other regions of the remaining visible and ultra-
violet spectrum to 3000 A are effective provided the energy value is
sufficient. For approximately equal energy values in these regions
the red rays are more effective than the green and the green than
the blue. The effectiveness of radiant energy seems to increase with
the wave length to about 6800 A, where it ends abruptly.
NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 5
Meier (1929), while working in Professor Chodat’s laboratory,
conducted a preliminary light experiment in conjunction with an ex-
periment relating to the formation of carotin in green algae. Three
series of cultures of Chlorella rubescens planted on solid media,
Detmer 4 plus glucose 2 percent with agar 1.5 percent, were placed
at a north window; one in the modified diffused light, the second in
violet light in a Senebier jar containing copper sulphate, and the third
in yellow-orange light, in a Senebier jar containing potassium di-
chromate. Chlorophyll production followed by formation of carotin,
and growth of the cells progressed most rapidly in natural light and
least rapidly in the violet light. These results agree with those re-
ported by Sachs on higher plants.
Arthur (1930) observed that plants grown under a red glass filter
transmitting no blue light resembled those grown in a dark basement
except that chlorophyll developed. The plants under a blue glass
filter transmitting no red were dwarfed but otherwise normal.
I. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT INTENSITIES
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
To determine simultaneously the effect of different light intensities
on algae under exactly similar conditions of medium and temperature,
a large metal tablé similar to the one pictured in plate 1, figure 1,
was constructed with four glass-bottomed water baths, each holding
eighteen 300-cc Erlenmeyer flasks. The four water baths are con-
nected to a centrally located thermostated mixing chamber which
kept the temperature for these experiments at 21° C. In order to
insure uniform dispersion of the algae, a common driving mechanism
continuously agitates the Erlenmeyer flasks. The cultures are il-
luminated from below by artificial light from Mazda daylight lamps.
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT
A preliminary experiment was conducted to determine the best
growing conditions and the nutrient solution best suited to the algae
in this apparatus. The following solutions were prepared:
1. Detmer (Modified Koch Solution)
alc MitKate 2. ei si. abies ds,0.8 Wi gram
Hotassinm) chlorides cn .c-e 0.25
Magnesium sulphate .......... 0.25 e
Potassium acid phosphate...... 0.25 es
MO simran sec evarsSiae ares Mahalo ete 0.002) 5
Distillledtwatet wepec:<.c1)o crete eric: 1 liter
This solution made up in the above proportions was diluted to one-third.
0 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
2. Emerson’s (1929) Solution
Magnesium sulphate .........-. 0.01 molar
Potassiumimnitnates ere. cise 0.012 4
Potassium acid phosphate..... 0.0090“
Galciummcarbonate) ass e 0.0001 s
Tron
3. Johnston’s (1929, 1932) Solution
Calciumipnitrate yay ciaciecieesie 0.005 volume molecular concentration
Magnesium sulphate .......... 0/002) 7h ; a
Potassium acid phosphate..... 0:002° 7 if os
Distilled water made up to I liter
Tron @
4.
Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by .33 grams of
potassium acid carbonate which supplies the same amount of potassium.
5.
Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by .6 grams of
potassium acid carbonate.
6.
Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by 1.2 grams of
potassium acid carbonate.
7s
Detmer 4 solution in which potassium chloride is replaced by 2.4 grams of
potassium acid carbonate.
8.
Similar to 1 but with cotton plugs.
0.
Similar to 2 but with cotton plugs.
a An equal quantity of iron was added to all the solutions.
Rubber stoppers were used for all the Erlenmeyer flasks except in
8 and 9, duplicate cultures of Detmer 4 and Emerson respectively,
which were plugged with cotton. The excess sulphur was removed
from the rubber stoppers with petroleum ether before they were
sterilized. One hundred cc of nutrient solutions was placed in each
300-cc Erlenmeyer flask and sterilized in an autoclave at 20 pounds
pressure for 20 minutes.
Five cultures of each of the above solutions were inoculated with
Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli. A similar number of cultures was
inoculated with Chlorella vulgaris var. Four sets of each alga were
placed in the water baths, the fifth in a north window of the Smith-
sonian flag tower.
NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 7,
For this experiment, a 300-watt Mazda daylight lamp was placed
under each of the four water baths. Under baths 1, 2, and 3 the bulb —
was placed so that the filament was 20 centimeters from the glass
bottom of the bath. For bath 4 the distance was 4o centimeters. In
bath 1 the cultures were stationary; the cultures in the other three
baths were continuously agitated so that the cells were more evenly
dispersed in the culture media. Cultures in baths 1, 3, and 4 were
lighted continuously throughout the experiment, but those in bath 2
were illuminated for 6 hours daily from 1 a.m. to 7 a.m.
This experiment was of one month’s duration from June 19, 1931,
to July 17, 1931.
RESULTS
A. As regards growing conditions —
1. The best development took place in those cultures grown under
natural conditions of light and darkness in a north window of the
tower. ‘
2. Of the cultures grown under artificial conditions in the baths,
the best ones were those grown in intermittent light at about a
distance of 20 centimeters from the light.
3. The next best Detmer cultures were those grown in bath 4 at a
distance of about 40 centimeters from the light.
4. The cultures in baths 1 and 3 gave the poorest results. There
was continuous illumination at a distance of about 20 centimeters in
both of these baths and in one set the cultures were stationary and
in the other, continually shaking.
B. As regards solutions —
1. The cultures of Detmer 4 both with rubber stoppers and cotton
plugs showed the best growth and most normal cells under all the
different conditions.
2. All the other cultures showed poor growth under continuous
light at 20 centimeters distance from the light in baths 1 and 3.
3. The cultures in which the potassium chloride of the Detmer
solution was replaced by potassium acid carbonate did not give as
good results as the Detmer 4 solution.
4. The algae in the Johnston solution were a brighter green than
the algae in the Detmer solution in the tower cultures.
5. The most normal algal cells occurred in the Emerson, Johnston,
and Detmer solutions in the tower and in intermittent light, bath 2.
6. The cells of the stationary cultures were irregularly shaped and
showed abnormally cut plastids.
7. The cells in the cultures 20 centimeters from the light, con-
tinuously illuminated, were very tiny.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
. CONCLUSIONS
1. Intermittent light gives more favorable results than continuous
light.
2. In continuous illumination better results were obtained by the
weaker light (at a distance of 40 centimeters).
3. Agitation is favorable to a more equal distribution of cells and
hence a more uniform lighting condition. It also favors multiplica-
tion, as the cells do not collect in large masses.
4. Detmer } is a favorable solution for the growth of the algae
under the controlled conditions described above.
5. Rubber stoppers serve as well as cotton plugs in 300-cc flasks
containing 100 cc of solution for an experimental period of a month.
SECOND EXPERIMENT
A second experiment was carried out with cultures of the follow-
ing 15 algae: Coccomyxa simplex, Chlorella viscosa, Scenedesmus
flavescens, Chlorella vulgaris, Stichococcus bacillaris, Palmellococcus
protothecoides, Oocystis naegeli, Cystococcus trregularis, Chlamvy-
domonas intermedia, Palmelococcus variegatus, Chlorococcum vis-
cosum, Scenedesmus chlorelloides var., Chlorella vulgaris var., Cysto-
coccus cohaerens, and Heterococcus viridis. Three sets of the cul-
tures were illuminated each by a 300-watt Mazda daylight lamp at a
distance of 40 centimeters from the glass bottom of the bath to the
top of the filament of the lamp. The fourth was kept in darkness.
Of the three illuminated culture sets, one received intermittent
light for 6 hours. All the cultures were constantly agitated with the
exception of one of the two receiving continuous illumination. The
experiment was in progress from July 28 to August 18, 1931. Detmer
4 solution was used for each alga.
The cultures that were agitated continuously and lighted intermit-
tently and the cultures that were stationary and lighted continuously
produced the most satisfactory results at the end of the experimental
period. In the stationary cultures, the algae had formed a film on
the bottom of the glass flasks that shielded those in the solution
from the intense light. The first seven algae listed above were green-
est and in the best condition. The next six listed were less green
probably because the light was too intense, while the last two listed,
that is, Cystococcus cohaerens and Heterococcus viridis, were killed
by the intense light in all three of the baths.
The cultures which were continually agitated and kept as closely
as possible in continuous darkness gave the following results: all
No. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER Q
the algal suspensions were practically colorless in appearance, but by
microscopic examination some green cells mixed with numerous
colorless cells were found for the following eight varieties: Sticho-
coccus bacillaris, Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus chlorelloides var.,
Oocystis naegelii, Chlorella viscosa, Scenedesmus flavescens, Cysto-
coccus irregularis and Palmellococcus variegatus. All colorless cells
were found in the following four varieties: Palmellococcus proto-
thecoides, Coccomyxa simplex, Chlorella vulgaris var., and Chlamy-
domonas intermedia.
THIRD EXPERIMENT
In the third experiment, which was in progress from October 10
to November 9, 1931, all the cultures in the four baths were con-
stantly agitated and lighted continuously. Mazda daylight lamps were
used and were so placed that the ratios of intensities in the four baths
Mele baa O. 27.
Intensity »
Bath Wattage Distance * microwatts/mm ” Ratio
I 60 (frosted ) 5.05 3.76 1.00
2 200 36.7 11.5 3.06
3 300 35-9 34.1 9.06
4 300 18.8 102.0 27.0
aa was measured from the glass bottom of the bath to the top of the filament
b As measured with a thermocouple.
In addition to the algae listed in the second experiment, cultures of
Haematococcus pluvialis and Palmellococcus miniatus were used.
Microscopic counts were made of each culture at the beginning and
at.the end of the experiment.
The increase in number of cells was roughly proportional to the
increase in light intensity insthe cultures of Oocystis naegelii, Palmel-
lococcus protothecoides, Chlorella vulgaris, Palmellococcus miniatus,
Chlamydomonas intermedia, Scenedesmus chlorelloides var., Hetero-
coccus viridis, Chlorella viscosa, Cystococcus irregularis, Cystococcus
cohaerens, Coccomy.va simplex, and Palinellococcus variegatus. Four
algae behaved differently. The most intense light caused the poorest
development of Stichococcus bacillaris and Scenedesmus flavescens,
although for the three other intensities the growth was proportional.
The growth was inversely proportional to the light intensity in
Chlorella vulgaris var. Chlorococcum viscosum grew very little in all
four light intensities. Cells with green chloroplasts were present in
all the cultures of the algae listed above. Hematococcus pluvialis had
a few gray-green cells in the lowest light intensity, more green cells
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2
in the next two light intensities, and numerous green cells with red
eye spots and a number of completely orange-red cells in the highest
light intensity.
Il. EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT WAVE LENGTHS
THE PLANT USED
Stichococcus bacillaris Naegeli, the green alga used in this experi-
ment, consists of a single cylindrical cell with rounded ends usually
partially filled with the chloroplast. The dimensions of the cell vary
from 2 to 2.5 » in diameter and from 4 to-8 » in length. Multiplica-
tion takes place by transverse division of the protoplast and the
formation of cross walls. The nucleus usually lies near the center
of the cell. (See pl. 2.) Filaments of cells were rarely observed in
my cultures. The alga develops rapidly, soon forming a green deposit
in Detmer 4 containing 0.005 percent to 0.02 percent ferric chloride.
The cells multiply very slowly on a solid medium such as Detmer }
agar, and after two months’ time small green buttons about 4 to 7
millimeters in diameter are present on the agar. If dextrose from 1.5
to 2 percent is added to the medium, the flat regular dark green disks
may grow to over I centimeter in diameter.
This alga does not liquefy gelatine but forms a slight dark green
growth on the surface of the culture medium.
My cultures have remained green in the dark for two months on
Detmer 4 agar plus 2 percent dextrose. The colonial formations, al-
though greener, are smaller when grown in darkness than correspond-
ing cultures in the light, owing to the less rapid development and
exhaustion of the nutrient medium. Artari (1899), Radais (1900),
Matruchot and Molliard (1902), and Chodat (1913), have also
grown green cultures of Stichococcus bacillaris in darkness. Cultures
illuminated continuously by electric light for two months were a
-brownish-gray color and the individual cells were abnormally shaped.
Corresponding cultures in sky illumination showed normal cells but
were beginning to discolor at the center of each colonial disk.
APPARATUS
A metal table somewhat similar to the one used for experimenting
on the effects of light intensity was constructed for experimental
work on the effect of light of different wave lengths on one variety
of aleas See ply tigate)
NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER Il
This table was constructed with four glass-bottomed water baths
each holding six 300-cc Erlenmeyer flasks. Each flask is enclosed in
a container with a light filter on the bottom. (See pl. 3, fig. 2.) The
holders containing the flasks are maintained in continuous agitation.
Each filter is one of a duplicate series of 12 short wave length cut-off
filters, that is, a set which transmits progressively shorter and shorter
TABLE 1.— Short Wave Length Cut-off Filters a
Cut-off
Name of filter A
Heat resisting pyrometer red, 62 percent................ 6000
PleatwEesisting, red. al 3G) pEercentrs sic lester ae eile «ore: 5900
Eleat resisting’ fed. V2A4G Mercenlteparsciecven’s vie) Aeusyauentieksiere oie 5800
Heat resisting lighthouse red, 100 percent............... 5600
leataresistine ayellows ned shade. meee eee emer 5200
Heat resisting yellow, medium shade .!................. 5000
eat mesisting’ yellow, yellow shadeyy....2+2.2..0.teccen 4800
Fea trresistings Nioviolia. Jct win aetcoctutsas sae cates evaerueretate ois 4600
Otte AG oe sears eis te, Wahan es saat tigi aom eS poset aie ra alee au oreS 4500
INOS Oi nate ayn eee Ue ut cee Lela th Ge aU Meter aE a 4000
Nulttan cee Fa cas velcnanegche: <tovnlocmestavs ete ale ed epee Herotey amr ARTS Susy G ZOO
2 These filters are made by the Corning Glass Company.
wave lengths from one transmitting only deep red to the other ex-
treme where the whole region is included, as shown in table 1. One
special filter is included in each set. Each flask containing its in-
oculated culture of Stichococcus bacillaris was placed in the con-
tainer, which cut out all light except that entering through the glass
filter. For the sake of convenience, one set of cultures is indicated
north side (N) and the duplicate set, south side (S).
EARLY EXPERIMENTS
Five experiments were conducted in this apparatus. The results of
the first two experiments are questionable, since the light intensity
measurements taken through the various filters at the close of the
experiment were found to vary as much as 50 percent from the
original measurements. The experiment was attempted a third time,
care being taken to clean the flasks and filters daily and also to observe
any change in light intensity with a photoelectric cell and to correct the
intensity changes accordingly. After the experiment had run for 10
days, the belt of the motor governing the circulation of water broke
during the night. By morning, the temperature of the cultures had
risen to 120° F. and as the majority of the algal cells were found to be
deformed, colorless, or exuding their chlorophyll, the results of this
experiment were also discarded.
[2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
FOURTH EXPERIMENT
The apparatus was completely overhauled for the fourth experi-
ment. This time a more trustworthy thermostat was used with a
safety device for cutting off the heater and lights in case of accident.
An electric clock was connected with the lighting system in such a
manner as to indicate any length of time the apparatus was not func-
tioning properly when the observer was absent.
Johnston’s (1932) work with tomato plants grown under Mazda
lamps indicates that a large proportion of infrared radiation present
in this type of illumination is injurious to the plants. Heat-absorbing
filters give more normal growth and physiological response, and where
the excessive infrared radiation from the lamps is absorbed by a
solution of copper sulphate, the plants are more normal. For this
reason a solution of copper sulphate (1.007 specific gravity at 80° F.)
was used in place of distilled water in the circulating system that
controls the temperature of the four baths.
In the third light-intensity experiment on page 9 it was found that
Stichococcus bacillaris increased in proportion to the increase in light
intensity when the intensities measured through water were B00,
11.5, and 34.1 microwatts/mm*. In this experiment, as well as in the
fifth one, the intensity measured through the copper sulphate solution
was 25 microwatts/mm?. Since the intensity as measured through
the copper sulphate solution is less than the next to the highest light
intensity used in the third light-intensity experiment, we know that
the light intensity in the filter experiments is favorable to the growth
of these algal cells. .
The copper sulphate solution entered each separate bath through
a flaring glass tube, over the end of which was placed a bag of huck
toweling. These bags strained out most of the bubbles caused by the
central pump, as well as any dirt or grease present, thus keeping the
copper sulphate solution clear in each bath.
Mazda lamps were used under each bath and so arranged at
distances from the glass bottom of the bath that the light intensity
was the same under each of the duplicate sets of 12 filters as mea-
sured by the thermocouple. Frequent readings of the light intensity
were made during the experiment to insure the similarity of the in-
tensity under the filters, and when necessary the distances of the
lamps from the bottom of the bath were changed or the lamps re-
placed by new ones. The voltage was read at the same time the in-
tensities were measured, since the voltage fluctuated slightly from
day to day thus causing a difference in intensity. The Erlenmeyer
No. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 13
flasks, the filters, and the glass bottoms of the water baths were
cleaned whenever necessary. While the filters were being cleaned,
the culture flasks were kept in a covered dark box.
The temperature of the baths was regulated by a thermostat set
at 21° C. throughout the experiment. The experiment was in progress
from February 7 to March 24, 1933.
A uniform medium and uniform inoculation were insured for all
the cultures by the following method: A 3-liter pyrex glass flask
was fitted with a rubber stopper through which was inserted a large
glass tube. One end of the tube was plunged in the culture medium,
the other fitted in rubber tubing with a stopcock ending in a glass
pipette. A second smaller glass tube was inserted through the rubber
stopper, then connected to a compressed air tube by rubber tubes
and a glass tube with cotton filters to filter out dust. (See pl. 3,
fig. 1.) The culture medium Detmer 4, for the 24 individual flasks
was made up in this large previously sterilized flask, which was
again sterilized in the autoclave at 20 pounds pressure for 20 minutes.
About 100 cc of a dark green suspension of cells of Stichococcus
bacillaris that had been growing in a north window for one month was
used to inoculate the 3-liter flask of Detmer 4 solution. Twenty-four
hours later the solution was well shaken and siphoned into each steril-
ized 300-cc flask to the previously marked 100-cc level.
Three extra cultures were placed in the north, south, and west
windows of the tower. Samples of the inoculated medium were mea-
sured by the nephelometer, the pH was determined colorimetrically,
and microscopic counts were made at the time when the flasks were
adjusted in the baths and the experiment started. Microscopic counts,
nephelometer measurements, and pH determinations were also made
at the close of the experimental period. The results of this experi-
ment are indicated in tables 2 to 9 and will be discussed in connection
with those obtained in the fifth experiment.
FIFTH EXPERIMENT
A fifth experiment, a repetition of the fourth experiment with
the exception of the duration, was carried on from May 29 to June
13, 1933. The results of this experiment are assembled with those
of the fourth experiment in tables 2 to 9.
THE PH OF THE CULTURES
As Kostychev (1931) points out, the change of pH is a factor not
to be ignored when stimulation or retardation of enzyme action, elec-
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
trical discharge of cell colloids, and the permeability of the plasma
membrane and other physiological processes are at work in a culture.
There is a certain range of pH in which each plant can exist. In
the fourth and fifth experiments the pH of the cultures was measured
at the beginning and at the end of the experiment with the Hellige
comparator, which uses colored glass disks in place of the standard
TABLE 2.—pH Determinations at End of Experiments
Filter: Fourth experiment Fifth experiment
short wave (Original solution, (Original solution pH 5.6)
length pH 5.4) 7 eee
cut-off North North South
A pH pH pH
6000 Ge 5.8 5.2
5900 2 5.2 5.6
5800 4.8 5.4 5.4
5600 4.8 5.6 5.2
5200 4.8 5.2 5.6
5000 2 5.8 5.6
4800 4.8 5.8 ; 5.6
4000 4.8 5.6
4500 4.8 5.8 5.8
4000 5.4 5.4 5.6
3700 4.8 5.4 5.8
solutions with which the sample of culture solution plus the indicator
is compared. Inadvertently, the cultures grown on the south side of
the water baths for the fourth experiment were discarded before the
pH could be determined. In these experiments, as shown by table 2,
the change in acidity of the cultures at the end of the experimental
period as compared with the original acidity is negligible, the maxima
being 0.6 pH in the fourth experiment and 0.4 pH in the fifth experi-
ment.
THE NEPHELOMETER
A special type of nephelometer was constructed to compare the
relative concentrations of the solutions. As shown in plate 1, figure 2,
this piece of apparatus consists of two stationary glass cells in each
of which is inserted a similar movable cell filled with distilled water
enclosing a stationary glass plunger lined with black paper to prevent
reflections. A beam of light is thrown on the glass cells from a con-
densing lens, and the cells are adjusted so that the light beam always
passes through the same depth of liquid. Each movable glass cell 1s
attached to a metric scale that gives the depth of the solution and is
adjustable so that the depth of the unknown solution placed in the
bottom stationary cell may change from zero to the length of the
NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER es)
scale. The intensity measurements are made with a photronic cell
and galvanometer system.
A zero adjustment was made with the nutrient solution in the four
cells so that there. is equal intensity on both sides of the apparatus as
shown by the deflection of the galvanometer. It was found that this
intensity was practically independent of the depth of the nutrient
solution. Then the nutrient solution in the bottom cell on one side
is replaced by the freshly inoculated solution at a chosen depth, thus
causing a deflection of the galvanometer less than that of the nutrient
solution in the cells on the other side. The percentage change in the
ratio of the two galvanometer deflections represents the absorption
of the inoculated solution. After the experimental period the depth
of each culture solution was adjusted to give the same ratio with the
nutrient solution as did the original inoculated solution.
According to Beer’s Law, the concentration of the solution is pro-
portional to the logarithm of the intensity of the light transmitted
through the various thicknesses ; or if the ratio of the light falling on
the cell to the light transmitted remains constant, the concentrations
of the solutions are inversely proportional to the depth.
DS soet*? (Beer's Law)
where
I = Intensity of light transmitted by thickness x of nutrient solu-
tion plus algae
7, = Intensity transmitted by nutrient solution (no algae)
(J and J) are measured with the photronic cell)
aw = thickness or length of column
¢ = concentration of algae
a = aconstant depending on absorbing medium (we assume a is
constant for the algae before and after growth in the
experiment )
The procedure was usually to measure the intensity transmitted
through the original inoculated solution and to call this 7; for a
length x;. Then after growth, x was adjusted to the same ratio.
ue i
peli 2
then
loo. =log oe OSes ie ie
See Cay =
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
and
I
loge — = acr = K
I
also
Ii :
log, Tt = desta
0
or
OCH 06.4,
so
Ci as
Ge ay
i.e., the concentrations are inversely proportional to the length (7).
Also
= growth,
1@2 lie
=
then the increase or growth was 3 times.
RESULTS
TOWER CULTURES
The three cultures grown in natural conditions of light and dark in
the tower gave the following results:
Galvanometer Growth Microscopic Microscopic
Window deflection factor count growth ratio
North cacraciers eveisietele cote 55.1 90 106.8 4.9
Southijiecucs cous cies 65.5 83 92.4 4.2
WIGS titipeys eyeverenstoreys susretevers 5255 1.04 110.0 BES
The pH was 5.8 in all three cultures. The cultures in the north and
south windows contained bright green cells, while those in the west
window were pale green and many of the chloroplasts were shrunken
and slightly abnormal. Possibly the afternoon sunlight in the heat of
the day is too strong for the cells.
CHLOROPHYLL
Samples of each culture when examined microscopically at the end
of the fourth and fifth experiments showed that chlorophyll was
present in all the cultures. The chloroplastids in some cultures were
in a more healthy condition than in others, as shown by table 3. In
No. 6
EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE
-METER
TABLE 3.—Description of Chloroplasts of Cells at End of Experimental Periods
Filter:
short wave
length
cut off
>
6000
5900
5200
5000
4500
4000
3700
Fourth experiment
North side
40%
7,
3%
57%
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
colorless
green and
pale green
© with yellow
granules
colorless
green
colorless
green
colorless
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
discolored
and disinte-
grated
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
colorless
green
with yellow
granules
colorless
green
% colorless
green, most
normal cul-
ture in this
series
green and
pale green
% with yellow
granules
colorless
green and
% colorless
South side
48%
green and
pale green
greenish
yellow
colorless
% green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
> colorless
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
colorless
o pale green
© with yellow
granules
colorless
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
colorless
green and
pale green
with yellow
granules
colorless
green and
pale green
7 colorless
green
with yellow
granules
colorless
green
with yellow
granules
colorless
grass green
colorless
N
68%
32%
84%
68%
20%
12%
Fifth experiment
North side
olive-green
and greenish
yellow
colorless,
dark spots
in some cells
green with
yellow gran-
ules
very faded
» colorless
pale sickly
green
green with
yellow gran-
ules
very faded
olive green
bright
orange
colorless
green
grass-green
a few yellow-
green
green and
pale green
grass-green
and dark
green
very pale
green
normal green
South side
green and faded
blue-green
bright green
sickly green
disintegrated
green with yellow
granules
green
green lumps with
yellow granules
green lumps
76% bright green
24% colorless
green
green, a few
discolored
green with
yellow granules
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
studying these tables, it should be borne in mind that the fourth ex-
periment was in progress for a period of 45 days, whereas the fifth
experiment was of 16 days’ duration. The difference in time probably
accounts for the greater number of colorless cells and cells in which
carotin had begun to appear in the fourth experiment. It should be
noted that cultures growing in light where the wave lengths were
cut off at 3700, 4000, 4500, 4600, 4800, and 5000 A were in especially
good condition.
The cultures that showed the most disintegration of the chloroplasts
were those where the light was cut off at 5200 A in the fourth experi-
ment, 5600, 5800, and 5900 A, with the exception of one culture
in the fifth experiment, and 6000 A.
GROWTH AS INDICATED BY MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS
The results show that cell multiplication ranging from twofold to
fourfold occurred in all the complex beams of radiation.
The third intensity experiment indicated that within the limits of
intensity here employed multiplication is proportional to the intensity
of illumination.
If it be assumed that this law holds for each of the complex beams
employed, means are found for separating the propagating influences
of different wave lengths. For if in the energy curves of two com-
plexes whose included areas are equal a part P is common, then if
Q be the total area of either curve and M the growth ratio due to the
complex of longer wave lengths, Cree M would be the growth
Q
ratio due to the part of the long-wave complex remaining in the
shorter-wave complex. If N be the observed growth ratio of the
shorter-wave complex, NV — aa M will be the growth ratio due
to the shorter wave lengths not found in the longer-wave complex.
Working on this plan, growth ratios have been computed for many
narrow ranges of wave lengths, and by inspection of the overlapped
energy curves, approximate values of their effective wave lengths have
been estimated. (See tables 4-9.)
In this way it is found that a wide red and tmfrared complex of
wave lengths from 0.6 to I.4 microns is moderately effective in pro-
moting multiplication of algae. It is impossible to know from these
experiments which of its wave lengths are the most effective. The
NO. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER 19g
other ranges of wave lengths show different results. Some appear to
inhibit multiplication, while others seem greatly to enhance it.
Inasmuch as the results depend on difference computations as be-
tween determinations themselves of considerable probable error, these
estimates of the effectiveness of different narrow ranges of wave
lengths to promote algal multiplication are very uncertain, but are
given for what they may be worth.
Growth experiments made with definite narrow ranges of wave
lengths by the aid of Christiansen filters should give more conclusive
results.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
Multiplication of the unicellular green alga, Stichococcus bacillaris
Naegeli, is proportional to the intensity of illumination ranging from
3.76 to 34.1 microwatts/mm ”. A higher intensity than 34.1 micro-
watts/mm ° such as 102.0 microwatts/mm ? checks the growth of this
alga.
Complex beams of radiation from 11 short wave length cut-off
filters were used to transmit progressively shorter and shorter wave
lengths from one transmitting only deep red, 6000 A, to the other
extreme, 3700 A, where most of the visible region is included.
Chlorophyll was formed under all the filters, but in best condition
when the wave lengths of the blue-violet region were included.
A multiplication of algae ranging from twofold to fourfold was
obtained in the cultures. By computing growth ratios for many nar-
row ranges of wave lengths and by estimating approximate values
under the energy curves of the effective wave lengths it is found
that a wide red and infrared complex of waves from 0.6 to 1.4
microns is moderately effective for the multiplication of the algal
cells.
Some ranges of wave lengths appear to inhibit cell multiplication
and chlorophyll formation. Some appear to favor them. Only by
means of experimentation with isolated narrow ranges of light can
the effectiveness of. all the wave lengths be determined. A similar
experiment with Christiansen filters instead of the glass ones is now
in progress and should give more conclusive results.
VOL. 92
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26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
LITERATURE CITED
ARTARI, ALEXANDER
1899. Ueber die Entwicklung grtinen Algen unter Ausschluss der Beding-
ungen der Kohlensaure-Assimilation. Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou,
PP. 39-47.
ArtHuR, JoHN M., GUTHRIE, JOHN D., AND NEWELL, JoHN M.
1930. Some effects of artificial climates on the growth and chemical com-
position of plants. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 17, pp. 416-482.
DANGEARD, A.
1912. La determination des rayons actifs dans la synthese .chlorophylliene.
Le Botaniste, vol. 12, pp. 22-26.
EMERSON, ROBERT
1929. Relation between maximum rate of photosynthesis and concentration
of chlorophyll. Journ. Gen. Phys., vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 609-622.
FLAMMARION, VON CAMILLE
1897. Ueber die Wirkung der verschiedenen Strahlen des Sonnenspektrums
auf die Vegetation. Biedermanns Central-Blatt, vol. 26, pp. 171-
173.
Jounston, Earu S., AND Dorr, W. H.
1929. The influence of boron on the chemical composition and growth of
the tomato plant. Plant Phys., vol. 4, pp. 31-62.
1932. The functions of radiation in the physiology of plants. II. Some
effects of near infra-red radiation on plants. Smithsonian Misc.
Coll., vol. 87, no. 14, pp. 1-15.
KLEBS, GEORG.
1916. Zur Entwickelungs-Physiologie der Farnprothallien. Sitz. Heidel-
berger Akad. Wiss., Math.-nat. 4 Abh., pp. 1-82.
1917. Zur Entwickelungs-Physiologie der Farnprothallien, Zweiter Teil.
Sitz. Heidelberger Akad. Wiss., Math.-nat. 3 Abh., pp. 1-138.
KostycHey, S.
1931. Kostychev’s chemical plant physiology. Translated by Charles J.
Lyon. Pp. 55-60. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston’s Sons & Co., Inc.
Meter, FLorENCE FE.
1929. Recherches expérimentales sur la formation de la carotine chez les
Algues vertes unicellulaires et sur la production de la gelée chez
un Stichococcus (S. mesenteroides). Bull. Soc. Bot. Genéve, vol.
21 (1), pp. 161-107.
Napson, G. A.
roto. Uber den Einfluss des farbigen Lichtes auf die Entwickelung des
Stichococcus bacillaris Nag. in Reinkulturen. Bull. Jardin Imp.
Bot. St.-Pétersbourg, Tome 10, pp. 137-150.
PFEFFER, W.
1871. Die Wirkung farbigen Lichtes auf die Zersetzung der Kohlensaure
in Pflanzen. Arb. Bot. Inst. Wiirzburg, Band 1, pp. 1-76.
No. 6 EFFECTS OF LIGHT ON ALGAE—MEIER
tN
N
Popp, HENRY WILLIAM
1926. A physiological study of the effect of light of various ranges of wave
length on the growth of plants. Amer. Journ. Bot., vol. 13, pp. 706-
736.
SACHS, JULIUS
1894. Wirkungen farbigen Lichts auf Pflanzen. Bot. Zeit., vol. 22, pp.
301-372.
SAYRE, J. D.
1928. The development of chlorophyll in seedlings in different ranges of
wave lengths of light. Plant Phys., vol. 3, pp. 71-77.
ScHANZ, F.
1919. Wirkungen des Lichts verschiedener Wellenlange auf die Pflanzen.
3er. Deutschen bot. Ges., Band 37, pp. 430-442.
STROHMER, FRIEDR. UND StiFt, A.
1905. Uber den Einfluss der Lichtfarbe auf das Wachstum der Zuckerribe.
Biedermanns Central-Blatt, vol. 34, pp. 229-233.
TEODORESCO, E. C.
1899. Influence des diverses radiations lumineuses sur la forme et la struc-
ture des plantes. Ann. Sci. Nat. Sér. Bot., 8¢ série, tome 10, pp.
141-262.
1929. Observations sur la croissance des plantes aux lumieres de diverses
longueurs d’onde. Ann, Sci. Nat. Sér. Bot., tome 11, pp. 201-336.
THELEN, Orro
1910. Nattirliches kiinstliches und monochromatisches Licht in seiner Be-
deutung ftir Entwickelung und die Stoffproduktion einiger Kul-
turpflanzen. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktor-
wurde der hohen philosophischen. Fakultat der Universitat Rostock.
pp. 1-59.
WEBER, RUDOLF
1875. Ueber den Einfluss farbigen Lichtes auf die Assimilation und die
damit zusammenhangende Vermehrung der Aschenbestandtheile in
Erbsen-Keimlingen. Die landwirthschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen,
Band 18, pp. 18-48.
WIESNER, JULIUS
1874. Untersuchungen tiber die Beziehungen des Lichtes zum Chlorophyll.
Sitz. Math. nat. K. K. Akad. Wiss., Band 69, Abtheilung 1, pp.
327-385.
Yor, JoHN H.
1929. Photometric chemical analysis, vol. 2, pp. 1-66. New York, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ZACHAREWICZ, Ep.
1895. Ueber den Einfluss der farbigen Lichtstrahlen auf die Kultur der
Erdbeere. Biedermanns Central-Blatt, vol. 24, p. 405.
,
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Hig hy Bt
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’
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92; NO.'6, PE. 4
1. WATER BATHS IN WHICH THE FLASKS OF ALGAE ARE IMMERSED
Each flask of algae is enclosed in a container with a light filter on the bottom. Conditions of
light, temperature, and humidity are controlled alike in all four baths.
2. NEPHELOMETER EMPLOYED FOR QUANTITATIVE TRANSMISSION
MEASUREMENTS TO DETERMINE THE COMPARATIVE
AMOUNTS OF GROWTH OF ALGAE
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLES 9'25) NON 16, RE se2
A PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A TYPICAL DROP FROM A DETMER }3 CULTURE
OF STICHOCOCCUS BACILLARIS NAEGELI THAT HAS BEEN GROWING
IN A NORTH WINDOW FOR ONE MONTH. X 250
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOET 92, NOS 6, PE 3
1. FLASK IN WHICH THE CULTURE MEDIUM FOR ALL THE CULTURES
WAS STERILIZED AND INOCULATED
The sterilized pipette was adjusted to the large container immediately before the culture was
poured into the small Erlenmeyer flasks.
2. TWO CULTURE FLASKS READY TO BE INSERTED IN THE METAL
CONTAINERS, EACH OF WHICH HAS A DIFFERENT
COLOR FILTER ON THE BOTTOM
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 7
HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS FROM THE WEST INDIES
MADE BY DR. PAUL BARTSCH UNDER THE WALTER
RATHBONE BACON SCHOLARSHIP, 1928-19380
BY
DORIS M. GOCHRAN
Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians,
.S. National Museum
(PUBLICATION 3259)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
OCTOBER 15, 1934
The Lord GWaltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. & a.
Mowe hE nOLOGICAL’COLEECTIONS FROM THE: WEST
INDIES MADE BY DR, PAUMBART SCE UNDER THE
WALTER RATHBONE BACON SCHOLARSHIP, 1928-
1930
By DORIS M. COCHRAN
Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians, U.S. National Museum
During 3 successive years, from 1928 to 1930, the Walter Rath-
bone Bacon Scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution was awarded
to Dr. Paul Bartsch, of the United States National Museum, primarily
for the extension of his studies of West Indian mollusks. In addition
to obtaining vast series of mollusks, he was able to make valuable
collections in many vertebrate groups, the lizards being of especial
interest scientifically, as diagnoses of five new species and subspecies
from his collection have already been published, and three other new
species are being described in the present report.
In the first excursion Cuba was thoroughly worked for mollusks,
and in addition nearly 100 amphibians and reptiles were obtained. On
the second trip, in 1929, the party touched at Cuba and Puerto Rico,
then continued eastward to the Virgin Islands and down the chain of
the Lesser Antilles to Margarita and Orchilla and the Dutch Leeward
Islands just north of Venezuela. Over 400 amphibians and reptiles
were collected, many of them considerably extending the ranges of
known species. The last expedition, in 1930, yielded nearly 600 speci-
mens taken in the Bahamas, Cuba, and the Cayman Islands. Seven
of the eight forms new to science came from this collection of 1930.
Class AMPHIBIA
Order SALIENTIA
Suborder Lincuata
Family HYLIDAE
HYLA SEPTENTRIONALIS Boulenger
Hyla septentrionalis Boulenger, Cat. Batr. Sal., p. 368, 1882.
The only species of amphibian taken in the Bahamas by Dr. Bartsch
is Hyla septentrionalis. It is exceedingly common in Acklins Island,
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 7
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
79 specimens, now U.S.N.M. nos. 81570-648, having been taken on
Pinnacle Hill on July 9, 1930, and two others, nos. 81650-1 from
Indian Wells on the same date. From Crooked Island we have two
examples, no. 81490 from Land Rail Point, July 14, 1930, and no.
81491 from Pitch Point on the same date.
Pinnacle Point, Acklins Island—While hunting for mollusks among the huge
bromeliads I discovered a small frog. With careful searching of many plants
we secured about 50 frogs of this species tucked away in the moist appressed
basal portion of the leaves .... Our next stop was at Pinnacle Hill, where
we made a careful search through the brush but found only a few specimens of
a little brown Cerion,.... also two frogs.
Several examples were obtained in Cuba, as follows:
U.S.N.M. nos. 75751-2 from one-half mile south of La Guira
Mansion, near San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba,
June 16, 1928; nos. 75791-2 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio
Province, Cuba, June 26-27, 1928; nos. 75817-24 from one-fourth
mile northwest of Vega Alta, Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August 12,
1928; no. 75841 from Jumagua Hills, west of Sagua La Grande,
Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August I, 1928.
Jumagua Hills. At station 2 we caught a huge tree toad nestling in a cavity
in a small tree which he completely filled and which he rendered flush, matching
beautifully the color scheme.
Family BUFONIDAE
BUFO EMPUSUS (Cope)
Peltaphryne empusa Cope, Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 344.
U.S.N.M. no. 75864 from Remedio, Santa Clara Province, Cuba,
August 11, 1928.
BUFO MARINUS (Linnaeus)
Rana marina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 211, 1758.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78995-7 from Monserrat, July 28, 1929 ; nos. 79032-7
from Grand Terre, Guadeloupe, on July 30-31, 1929; nos. 79198-202
from Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929.
Family LEPTODACTYLIDAE
ELEUTHERODACTYLUS JOHNSTONEI Barbour
Eleutherodactylus johnstonei Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, no. 2,
p. 249, 1914.
U.S.N.M. no. 79192 from the Annandale Estate, Grenada, August
NOS 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 3
ELEUTHERODACTYLUS LOCUSTUS Schmidt
Eleutherodactylus locustus Schmidt, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., vol. 28, p. 174,
1920.
U.S.N.M. no. 78925 from El Yunque, Puerto Rico, June 27, 1929,
I assign with some hesitation to the above species, the type of which I
have not seen. The specimen in hand agrees with Schmidt’s descrip-
tion except for the tympanum, which in the type is said to be “ scarcely
distinct, one-fourth the diameter of the eye’’, while in the present
specimen it is quite distinct and is over one-third the eye diameter.
My specimen measures 21 mm from snout to vent. It is dark brown,
with only faint traces of the dark interorbital band and some dark
rhombic markings on the labial regions.
ELEUTHERODACTYLUS PORTORICENSIS Schmidt
Eleutherodactylus portoricensis Schmidt, Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 279, p. 2, 10927.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78923-4, an adult female with a number of hatching
eggs taken at EK] Yunque, Puerto Rico, June 27, 1929:
.... The strangest find was a frog—treetoad—with a mass of eggs in a
rolled-up palm leaf, which she seemed to guard. The eggs were on the point
of hatching and began at once, on being exposed, to vibrate, and yielded their
young, which turned out to be not tadpoles but small jumping frogs. I gathered
a number of these, as well as the parent.
This observation as to the egg mass being guarded by the female
has been made by two collectors—by Gundlach (Peters, Monatsb.
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1876(1877), p. 709) and by Bello y Espinosa
(Martens, Zool. Garten, vol. 12, p. 351, 1871 )—and the dates on which
they found the developing eggs, May 24 and July 8, are borne out by
the date of the present find, June 27.
LEPTODACTYLUS VALIDUS Garman
Leptodactylus validus Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 10, p. 14, 1887.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79068-75 from Brighton, St. Vincent, August 14,
1929 ; nos. 79076-7 from Mount St. Andrews, St. Vincent, August 15,
1920.
Family BRACHYCEPHALIDAE
PHYLLOBATES TRINITATIS Garman
Phyllobates trinitatis Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 19, p. 13, 1887.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79203-4, a half-grown specimen and tadpoles from
the summit of a road leading north from Arima, Trinidad, Septem-
ber 1, 1929.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Class REPU MEA
Subclass DIAPSIDA
Order SQUAMATA
Suborder Sauria
Family GEKKONIDAE
GYMNODACTYLUS ANTILLENSIS Lidth de Jeude
Gymnodactylus antillensis Lidth de Jeude, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. 9, p. 129,
1887.
U.S.N.M. no. 79225 from Bonaire Island, September 12, 1929; no.
79231 from Orchilla Island, September 10, 1929. The latter appears
to be the first specimen of this species taken on Orchilla Island.
GONATODES ALBOGULARIS (Duméril and Bibron)
Gymnodactylus albogularis Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 3, p. 415, 1836.
U.S.N.M. no. 79952, a very young and somewhat damaged specimen
from Otra Banda, near Red Sark, Curacao, taken on September 17,
1929, shows a body pattern of four narrow white bands edged an-
teriorly with deep brown. The back of the head bears a broad U-
shaped light mark, edged anteriorly and on the sides with brown. A
few white dots appear on the upper labials.
PHYLLODACTYLUS PULCHER Gray
Phyilodactylus pulcher Gray, Spic. Zool., p. 3, 1830.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79256-7, two very young specimens from Bonaire
Island, September 12, 1929; nos. 79315-6, two adults from Aruba
Island, September 17, 1929.
HEMIDACTYLUS MABOUIA (Moreau de Jonnés)
Gecko mabouia Moreau de Jonnés, Bull. Soc. Philom., 1818, p. 138.
U.S.N.M. no. 75843 from Havana, Cuba, July 18, 1928.
THECADACTYLUS RAPICAUDUS (Houttuyn)
Gekko rapicauda Houttuyn, Verhandl. Zeeuwsch. Genoot. Wet. Vlissingen, vol. 9,
p. 323, 1782.
U.S.N.M. no. 79132 from Carriacou Island, Grenadines, August 21,
1929.
INO 9/7, HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 5
ARISTELLIGER PRAESIGNIS (Hallowell)
Hemidactylus praesignis Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856,
peer
Three geckos of this species were taken on Six Hill Cay off South
Caicos on August 3, 1930, now U.S.N.M. nos. 81444-6. They do not
differ essentially from the 16 Jamaican praesignis in the national
collection. All the Caicos lizards have eight upper labials and seven
lower labials. Their subdigital lamellae are really 20 to 21 in number,
although only 13 to 16 of these are enlarged beyond the width of the
surrounding granules. The largest specimen measures 72 mm from
snout to beginning of tail; the tail itself has been partly reproduced,
but now measures 86 mm.
These lizards were found by turning over rocks.
TARENTOLA CUBANA Gundlach and Peters
Tarentola cubana Gundlach and Peters, Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1864, p. 384.
A young individual, U.S.N.M. no. 81721, was taken on Cachiboca
Cay, Doce Leguas, Province of Camagiiey, Cuba, on September 8,
1930 and a larger specimen, no. 81826, came from Puerto Portillo in the
Province of Oriente, Cuba, on August 29, 1930.
SPHAERODACTYLUS ARGIVUS Garman
Sphaerodactylus argivus Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 3, 1888.
U.S.N.M. nos. 81754-5 from Cayman Brac, September II, 1930.
SPHAERODACTYLUS BARTSCHI, n. sp.
Diagnosis—Dorsals keeled, imbricate, no differentiated middorsal
zone ; about nine dorsals in the standard distance between center of eye
and tip of snout ; lateral grooves more or less apparent on the rostral ;
faintly or distinctly spotted on the posterior part of body and on tail;
sometimes a light dark-bordered stripe on each flank extending onto
the tail; adult size rather small.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 81759, an adult male from Little Cayman
Island, taken September 12-13, 1930.
Description of the type-——Snout moderately long but not very
acutely pointed, its length two and one-half times the diameter of the
eye ; eye slightly nearer ear than tip of snout ; rostral moderate, with a
long median cleft behind, with merely a trace of lateral crescentic
grooves ; nostril between rostral, first supralabial, two postnasals (the
upper the smaller) and a large supranasal which is separated from its
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
fellow by a single small scale followed by another of about the same
size ; superciliary spine moderate in size; three large supralabials to a
point below the center of the eye; a very large anterior infralabial, a
smaller second and part of a third infralabial to the same point ; top of
head covered with granules which are relatively large, hexagonal, and
very faintly keeled or smooth on the snout, more elongate and heavily
keeled between the eyes, and much smaller but still distinctly keeled on
the occiput ; scales of back keeled, imbricate, nine in the distance be-
tween tip of snout and center of eye; no middorsal granular zone ;
laterals irregular, only slightly larger than dorsals, about seven to
seven and a half lateral scales in the standard distance ; mental a trifle
longer than rostral, followed by two enlarged postmentals; scales of
gular region small, slightly tubercular and indistinctly keeled only at
the level of the commissure of the jaws, becoming smooth and imbri-
cate on the throat ; scales of chest and belly smooth, rounded, imbricate,
about seven ventral scales to the standard distance, not perfectly
regular in size; scales of limbs anteriorly and below like those of the
belly, much smaller and granular posteriorly; 14 smooth lamellae
under the fourth toe; scales of tail (reproduced) above keeled,
imbricating, below smooth, enlarged transversely into a series of wide,
rather irregular plates. A triangular “escutcheon” of differentiated
scales about five scales long by nine wide, which projects only for a
distance of one or two scales on the femur.
Dimensions.—Head and body, 25 mm; tail (reproduced), 21 mm;
width of head, 5 mm; tip of snout to ear, 6.5 mm; foreleg, 7 mm; hind
leg, 10 mm.
Coloration in alcohol—Head drab, upper part of body mouse-gray,
tail pale olive-buff ; numerous sepia spots one scale in width beginning
between the shoulders, indistinct on the anterior half of the back but
becoming very apparent on the tail. Lower parts pale olive-buff, with
very minute dark punctulations on the belly and on the posterior edges
of the transversely enlarged plates beneath the tail. Fore limbs very
indistinctly, hind limbs rather distinctly spotted above.
Paratypes—Five specimens, a female (U.S.N.M. no. 81758), three
males (nos. 81757, 81760, 81761) and a very young one (no. 81756)
were taken at the same place and time as the type.
Variation.—In size of scales there is little variation, all of the
adults having nine dorsals in the standard distance. The keels on the
scales of the throat below the corner of the mouth are as distinct in
two adults as they are in the type, but are less distinct in the other two
examples. The crescentic grooves on the rostral are fairly well de-
veloped in two specimens, but are scarcely apparent in the others. In
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN Wi
coloration, one male (no. 81760) most nearly resembles the type,
although the spots are much less apparent. The other three specimens,
including the female, have scarcely a trace of spotting, but there is a
distinct dark-bordered light stripe on the flank beginning just anterior
to the groin and continuing for some distance onto the tail. The very
young specimen, unfortunately too mutilated to be of use in scale
comparison, nevertheless shows these posterolateral light lines very
plainly, as its body color tends toward sepia, instead of the pale drab
or gray characteristic of the adults.
Relationships——The new species agrees with argus and caicosensis
in general in scalation as well as in having at least the traces of
crescentic grooves on the rostral. It differs from caicosensis in having
the throat scales entirely smooth, and from argus in having three
instead of four supralabials to a point below the center of the eye,
and from both these species in its much reduced pattern. It is in-
teresting to note that the new species is not closely related to argivus,
the only Sphaerodactyl heretofore known from the Cayman group,
and which is apparently confined to Cayman Brac.
SPHAERODACTYLUS CAICOSENSIS, n. sp.
Diagnosis —Dorsals imbricate, very heavily keeled, about 11 to the
standard distance between tip of snout and eye; no differentiated
middorsal zone; lateral crescentic grooves on rostral more or less
apparent; throat scales keeled, at least laterally; female with dark
stripes on head ; body with dark irregular spots arranged transversely ;
flanks and tail with a dark light-edged stripe. Coloration of male
unknown.
Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 81443, an adult female from South Caicos
Island, Bahama Islands, July 29, 1930.
Description of the type-——Snout moderately short and broad, its
length twice the diameter of the eye; eye slightly nearer ear than tip
of snout; rostral large, with a median groove behind, bordered by
faintly indicated crescentic grooves; nostril between rostral, an en-
larged supranasal, a pair of postnasals of which the upper is the
smaller, and the first supralabial; supranasals separated from each
other by a single small scale; superciliary spine rather small; three
subequal supralabials to a point below the center of the eye; a very
large first infralabial and a much smaller second and third infralabial
to the same point ; top of head covered with keeled scales, larger and
hexagonal on the snout, smaller and more elongate between the eyes,
very small and nearly round on the occiput ; scales of back small, very
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
heavily keeled, imbricate, about 11 equalling the standard distance
from snout to center of eye ; no middorsal differentiated zone ; laterals
like the dorsals, 11 in the standard distance ; mental moderately large,
followed by two enlarged postmentals; scales of gular region small,
smooth, not imbricate anteriorly, but becoming imbricate and decidedly
keeled on the throat; scales of chest and belly smooth, rounded, im-
bricate, about 9 ventral scales to the standard distance, not perfectly
regular in size; scales of limbs anteriorly and below like those of the
belly, much smaller and granular posteriorly; 10 smooth lamellae
under the fourth toe; scales of proximal part of tail above keeled,
regular and obtusely pointed, on reproduced part smooth, irregular and
rounded ; below on the proximal part with a larger median and two
smaller bordering rows of enlarged hexagonal scales, on the reproduced
part with a median series of transversely enlarged plates, rather
irregularly arranged.
Dimensions.—Head and body, 26 mm; tail (reproduced) 20 mm;
width of head, 5 mm; tip of snout to ear, 7 mm; fore leg, 7 mm; hind
leg, 9 mm.
Coloration in alcohol—Female: body color above pinkish buff ;
head with a lateral sepia stripe beginning at the nostril, passing through
the eye, widening behind the eye and passing upward to meet its fellow
in a pair of diamond-shaped spots on the occiput; a dark median
stripe beginning on the rostral, narrowing between the eyes, widening
again and ending in a diamond-shaped spot on the posterior part of the
head ; traces of a dark stripe leading from the corner of the mouth onto
the sides of the neck and then dorsally; back with numerous wide,
dark, wavy crossbands which tend to break up posteriorly into very
irregular transversely arranged spots; tail with a continuation of the
posterior dorsal coloration ; a wide, dark, light-edged stripe beginning
on the flanks just anterior to the groin and continued onto the tail
where there are traces of a dark line bordering it below; ventral
surfaces pale olive-gray, suffused with very minute gray punctulations
which are especially numerous on the posterior part of the belly and
beneath the legs and tail; upper surfaces of limbs with alternating
light and dark crossbars. The coloration of the male is not known.
Paratype-—A single paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 81447, also a female,
was taken on Long Cay, off South Caicos, on the same day as the type.
It is essentially the same in scalation, having 11 dorsals to the standard
distance. Only the lateral scales of the throat of the paratype appear
to be keeled ; the central ones are smooth, like the gulars which precede
them. There are nine lamellae on the fourth toe. The color pattern
on the head is very similar to that of the type; the body however, is
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 9
much paler because of the great reduction in the size and intensity of
the spots. The lateral stripe on the flanks and tail is quite prominent.
Relationships —-This species falls in the key near to corticolus and
argus. It differs from corticolus, however, in having the traces of
crescentic grooves on the rostral, while its keeled throat scales serve
to distinguish it from argus, as well as from bartschi, one of the other
new forms described in this paper.
SPHAERODACTYLUS CINEREUS Wagler
Sphaerodactylus cinereus Wagler, Syst. Amph., p. 143, 1830.
U.S.N.M. nos. 81722-5 from the Cayo east of Boca Juan Gria,
Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 8, 1930; nos. 81726-7 from
Grande Cay, Doce Leguas, Camagtiey, Cuba, September 9, 1930.
SPHAERODACTYLUS FESTUS Barbour
Sphaerodactylus festus Barbour, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 28, p. 13,
IQI5.
A young individual, apparently a female, U.S.N.M. no. 79061 from
Diamond Hill, South Martinique, taken August 9, 1929, shows a
characteristic pattern of light chevron-shaped markings across the
back.
I shot 16 lizards, mostly tree-climbing, but I got a small dark fellow under
the muck and rubbish, probably a young one..... Diamond Hill is a coni-
cal eminence rising quite abruptly to an elevation of 1,568 feet. It is rough and
rocky near the summit, and in spots carries still a bit of woods. Very little of
living stuff was found but we did get a splendid lot of muck and rubbish adding
many things to our catch of yesterday.
SPHAERODACTYLUS MARIGUANAE, n. sp.
Diagnosis.—Dorsals imbricate, elongate, keeled; no differentiated
middorsal zone; scales of middorsal region very slightly smaller than
those of flanks, about 13 middorsals and about 11 dorsolateral scales
in the standard distance between tip of snout and center of eye ; supra-
nasals large, normal, separated by one small scale; a more or less
distinct crescentic groove on each side of median rostral groove ; ven-
trals smooth; anterior gular scales faintly keeled ; head relatively short
and broad, body heavily built, size relatively large. Sexual dichroma-
tism scarcely evident; males usually rather faintly spotted above,
females somewhat more heavily spotted, both sexes with a more or
less distinct light-centered, dark-edged nuchal crescent and several
chevron-shaped bars across the tail.
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Type —U.S.N.M. no. 81381, an adult male from Booby Island, east
of Mariguana Cay, Bahama Islands, taken July 21, 1930. Snout
relatively short, its length only twice the diameter of the eye; eye
slightly nearer ear than tip of snout; rostral large, with a median
groove and a more or less distinct crescentic lateral groove ; nostril
between rostral, one large supranasal, two postnasals and the first
supralabial ; supranasals separated from each other by a single scale ;
superciliary spine moderate in size ; three large supralabials to a point
below the center of the eye, with a very small fourth one terminating
the series; three infralabials to the same point, the first one very
greatly enlarged, this series terminated likewise by a very small fourth
scale ; top of snout covered with keeled polygonal scales which decrease
considerably in size between the eyes and become almost granular on
the occiput, about 25 in a straight line across the head just anterior to
the superciliary spine ; scales of back small, keeled, imbricate, the mid-
dorsals slightly smaller than those of flanks ; about 13 middorsals and
about 11 dorsolaterals equalling the standard distance from tip of snout
to center of eye ; no middorsal granular zone ; mental large, followed by
two postmentals which are only slightly enlarged; scales of anterior
gular region small, very faintly keeled, very slightly imbricate ; scales
of chest and belly smooth, rounded, imbricate ; about 13 ventral scales
to the standard distance, fairly regular in size; scales of limbs keeled
above, smooth below, almost granular posteriorly ; 14 smooth lamellae
under the fourth toe ; scales of tail above keeled, imbricating, below on
the median line enlarged transversely into a series of irregular hex-
agonal plates ; “‘ escutcheon ” of male prominent and wide, extending
on the femur two-thirds of the distance to the knee, composed of
thickened white scales in which traces of pigment appear only at the
extreme posterior borders of those on the femur.
Dimensions —Head and body, 38 mm; tail, 48 mm; width of head,
7 mim; tip of snout to ear, 9 mm; fore leg, 8.5 mm; hind leg, 11 mm.
Coloration in alcohol—Upper parts fawn color with indistinct
dorsal punctulations of sepia; a trace of a sepia-edged nuchal cres-
centic marking ; tail with pronounced light chevrons edged with sepia,
and with an interrupted lateral sepia stripe; top and side of head
pale drab, immaculate; underparts pale olive-buff with very minute
eray dots on the throat, and heavier dots below the thighs and on the
edges of the enlarged plates beneath the tail; limbs immaculate, drab
above, pale drab below.
Paratypes—Seven specimens—three adult males (U.S.N.M. nos.
81379, 81380, and 81382), three females (nos. 81376-8) and a half-
NOD 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN iE
grown individual (no. 81383) were collected at the same time as the
type. A field note follows:
One of the interesting finds of the day was a small, very dark brown, finely
spotted lizard, probably a Sphaerodactylus of which we obtained eight specimens
by quick work in turning over rocks and grabbing them before they could again
slip under cover.
Variation—The head scalation is similar in all the specimens,
except in no. 81378, in which both supranasals are abnormally divided
longitudinally, so that there are five subequal scales bordering the
rostral between the nostrils, instead of an enlarged pair separated ‘by
a small scale, as in normal cases. The keels on the anterior gular
region are faint but definite in all but one specimen, no. 81377; in this
individual they are present on one or two transverse series of scales at
the middle of the throat and must be looked for carefully even at that
point. The crescentic grooves on the rostral plate are well marked in
all the specimens but one (no. 81380). The number of dorsal scales
in the standard distance varies between t1 and 13 depending on where
the count is made; the middorsal scales are slightly smaller than those
on the flanks, but not otherwise differentiated in any way. The
ventral scales are likewise 11 to 13 in the standard distance, but are
more irregular in size than the dorsals, so that different counts may be
obtained by shifting a single scale-row in any direction.
As to color variation it appears that little if any sexual dichroma-
tism appears in this species. Except for the nuchal crescent, three
of the males are almost devoid of pattern, but so is the largest fe-
male. The fourth male has a definitely spotted and reticulated dorsum,
intermediate between the remaining two females. The pattern is
most highly developed in one of these females, no. 81377—there is
a dark stripe beginning at the nostrils, passing through the eye
and merging. with the crescentic nuchal marks, here greatly elabo-
rated. An anastomosing pattern of sepia lines covers the top of
the head, and this is broken up on the body into an irregular series of
spots and bars, which becomes more definite on the tail, where the
crossbars have acquired light centers. The nuchal marking on some of
the other specimens is not a true crescent ; it may be represented by a
pair of dark spots surrounded by an irregular indented parallelogram
of dark lines. The dark stripe on the side of the head is apparent only
in those specimens in which the pattern is well developed.
Relationships—tIn the key this species falls near oxyrhinus and
argivus, but differs from both of them in having the anterior gular
scales faintly keeled, and even more radically in size and in color
pattern. In fact, it cannot be said to be very close to any of the known
species of the genus.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
SPHAERODACTYLUS NOTATUS Baird
Sphaerodactylus notatus Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1858, p. 254.
A well-preserved male, U.S.N.M. no. 81270, from Mathewtown,
Great Inagua, was collected on August 9, 1930. While Mathewtown is
the type locality of the indigenous Sphaerodactylus inaguae Noble and
Klingel, it is a port for West Indian shipping as well, and hence the
occurrence of a form like notatus, known to be an inveterate traveler,
is to be expected occasionally. ,
Another male, no. 81471, came from the cays adjacent to the South
Channel cays of the Ragged Island group, collected on June 28, 1930.
In Cuba the species is rather common, as the following list will
show :—U.S.N.M. nos. 81764-5 from the cay west of Channel,
Havana Province, Cuba, September 20, 1930; nos. 81767-74 from
Cayo Avillon, near Canapachi, Havana Province, Cuba, September 21,
1930; no. 81775 from the balconies of Cayo Contelos, Havana
Province, Cuba, on the same date.
SPHAERODACTYLUS TORREI Barbour
Sphaerodactylus torrei Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, p. 260, 1914.
A banded female apparently referable to this species was collected
at Rio Puerco in the Province of Oriente, Cuba, on August 29, 1930
(U.S.N.M. no. 81670).
A pair (U.S.N.M. nos. 81822-3) from Boqueron, Cuba, August
19, 1930, shows very well the sexual dichromatism occurring in this
species. Unlike most vertebrates, in which the male shows the brilliant
and spectacular coloring if such coloring is to appear at all in the
species, it is the female of Sphaerodactylus torre: which is charac-
terized by the brilliantly contrasting crossbands of black and yellow
or red, while the male is without any trace of any such crossbands
when fully adult, having at most only a spotting of irregular brown
dots. In the case of the Boqueron male, the dorsal surfaces are a
uniform dull drab without punctulations of any kind.
Another pair, U.S.N.M. nos. 81827-8, came from Puerto Portillo in
Oriente Province, Cuba, August 29, 1930. In the female the char-
acteristic pattern of bands appears as usual, but the male has a heavy
spotting of coarse brown dots covering the entire dorsal surface from
between the eyes to the beginning of the reproduced tail.
Two mutilated females, U.S.N.M. nos. 78921-2, from Rio Yaleritas,
Oriente Province, are referred to this species also. They both are
heavily crossbanded.
NOS 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 13
SPHAERODACTYLUS VINCENTI Boulenger
Sphaerodactylus vincenti Boulenger, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1891, p. 354.
A-male, U.S.N.M. no. 79067, from Brighton, St. Vincent, August
14, 1929, measures 22 mm from snout to vent. It has a very distinct
escutcheon of differentiated scales on the posterior surface of the abdo-
men. The epidermis covering this patch of differentiated scales in
Sphaerodactyli is more opaque when drying than is the epidermis of
the surrounding ventral parts. When the epidermis is removed, the
differentiated scales appear coarser and thicker than do the ordinary
ventral scales, and they are unpigmented and hence usually lighter in
color than the other ventral scales.
Family IGUANIDAE
IGUANA IGUANA (Linnaeus)
Lacerta iguana Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, vol. 1, p. 206, 1758.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79211-6 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, Sep-
tember 8, 1929; no. 79229 from Orchilla Island, September 10, 1929 ;
nos. 79321-2 from Aruba Island, September 17, 1929. In these
examples there is a range of 46 to 58 in the number of enlarged scales
in the dorsal crest, and the femoral pores are between 13 and17. None
of the individuals shows a tendency to have any of the median snout
scales enlarged into the conical, soft tubercles which supposedly
characterize the variety rhinolopha. The following color notes were
made from living examples from Los Robles, Margarita Island, by
Dr. Bartsch:
Head most intense green with a dark brown, almost black, spot on the middle
of the top, another below and a third behind the eye, typanum gray. Neck green
gold and striped with dark brown. Body green gold, marbled with white and
almost black spotted. Comb warm red on neck, tending gradually toward green
on the back. Underside of belly pale green spotted with various shades of
brown. Dewlap faintly rose, edged with green and dotted and dashed with
dark brown. Sides of body with zigzag, oblique bands of green, brown and
white in the order mentioned, from the back forward. Scales of front legs
green and brown, greener inside, with a whitish, greenish band on the shoulder,
edged by dark dorsally. Hind legs like the front, whitish below. Tail green
with broad bands of brown, usually edged with whitish or light brown on the
posterior part, the light area being on the outer parts of the bands. The posterior
half of the tail has alternating broad bands of light and dark brown.
DEIROPTYX BARTSCHI Cochran
Deiroptyx bartschi Cochran, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 41, p. 169, Oct. 15,
1928.
U.S.N.M. nos. 75797-806 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio
Province, Cuba, June 25, 1928; no. 75805 is the type of this species.
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
ANOLIS ACUTUS Hallowell
Anolis acutus Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856, p. 228.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78929-39 from St. Croix, July 15, 1929.
ANOLIS ALLIACEUS Cope
Anolis alliaceus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 175.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79004-21 from Danes, east of Portsmouth, Do-
minica, August 4, 1929; nos. 79026-9 from East Cabrite Island,
Dominica, taken on the same day.
ANOLIS ANGUSTICEPS Hallowell
Anolis augusticeps Hallowell, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1856, p. 228.
U.S.N.M. no. 75816 from Sitio Perdido, Havana Province, Cuba,
July 28, 1928.
ANOLIS ARGENTEOLUS Cope
Anolis (Gastrotropis) argenteolus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
1861, p. 213.
U.S.N.M. no. 81679 from the mouth of the Magdalena River,
Oriente Province, Cuba, August 29, 1930; no. 81825 from Puerto
Portillo, Province of Oriente, on the same date.
ANOLIS BIMACULATA Sparrman
Anolis (Lacerta) bimaculata Sparrman, Nya Handl. Sy. Vet. Akad. Stockholm,
vol. 5, p. 169, 1874.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78981-7 from Mount Nevis, Nevis, July 27, 1929;
nos. 78988-94 from St. Eustacius, July 25, 1929. Regarding the living
coloration of this lizard on St. Eustacius the following color note has
been drawn up from Dr. Bartsch’s description: The top of the head
in front of the eyes is peacock-blue, the larger scales with a pinkish
flush that becomes intensified behind the eyes and on the temporal
region. The pineal eye is gray brown. The side of the head anterior
to the eyes is peacock-blue. The area about the eyes is intense, bril-
liant green. The top of the nape is blue with a pinkish flush. The main
dorsal part of the body is yellowish green from the nape to the tail.
This color extends from the base of the tail over the fore and hind legs,
but these have a yellowish pink superimposed, which gradually fades
into yellow-green on the belly. On the throat, and from there to the
fore leg, are irregularly distributed spots of orange, the posterior
portion being uniform in color. The inside of the legs corresponds in
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN nS
color with the belly. The posterior half of the upper side and the
outside of the hind legs are marked with obscure spots of blue. An
inch behind the base of the tail the same peacock-blue seen on the
forehead reappears, slowly grading from the general dorsal color. The
last 2 inches of the tail is pale brown. Here spots and splashes of dark
brown, blue, and various shades of rose are irregularly scattered about.
The median under part of the tail is a little paler than the ground color
of the rest, and free from spots on the outer half, the posterior inch of
the coarse, scaled portion being brown.
It may be noted here that the seven St. Eustacius lizards have a
dark brown spot just above the white shoulder stripe. This is lacking
in the 7 lizards from Nevis, but is slightly apparent in 12 from St.
Kitts, according to the alcoholic specimens that I have examined. Color
differences between the Nevis and St. Eustacius lizards were observed
by Dr. Bartsch in the living animals, for in his field notes written
after his excursion to Mount Nevis on July 27, he writes: “ ie
on the return I shot . . . a bunch of lizards—two kinds. The blue-
green one is not so beautiful here as on St. Eustacius. I got one with
two tails”.
ANOLIS BONAIRENSIS Ruthven
Anolis bonairensis Ruthven, Occ. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 143, p. 4,
July 9, 1923.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79258-70 from Bonaire Island, September 12-13,
1934. The gular fan of no. 79267 was primrose-yellow after having
been preserved for 2 months.
ANOLIS BRUNNEUS (Cope)
Anolis principalis brunneus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 432.
Some scattered examples of this much disputed species were taken
at the following places: U.S.N.M. nos. 81449-50 from Flamingo Cays
of the Ragged Island Group on June 25, 1930; no. 81561 from Castle
Island, south of Acklins Island, on July 8, 1930; no. 81649 from
Pinnacle Hill, Acklins Island, on July 9, 1930; nos. 81525-27 from
Cay Sal on June 17, 1930; nos. 81558-9 from Cotton Cay of the Cay
Sal Group on June 23, 1930.
The lizards from the Cay Sal group have distinctly larger dorsal
granules than do the others listed above. In other respects they seem
to be very similar. An examination of the type of Anolis brunneus, or,
lacking that, the careful study of topotypic material from Crooked
Island must be made before a positive statement regarding the actual
status of the species can be issued.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
ANOLIS CONSPERSUS Garman
Anolis conspersus Garman, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 24, p. 273, 1887.
A good series, U.S.N.M. nos. 81732-41, was secured on Grand Cay-
man, September 15-16, 1930.
ANOLIS CRISTATELLUS Duméril and Bibron
Anolis cristatellus Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 143, 1837.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78926-7 from Bordeaux Hill, St. John’s, July 13,
1929, elevation 1,277 ft.; nos. 78940-8 from Bellevue Hill, Road
Harbor, Tortola, July 17, 1929; nos. 78949-56 from Virgin Gorda,
July 19, 1929.
ANOLIS EQUESTRIS Merrem
Anolis equestris Merrem, Syst. Amph., p. 45, 1820.
U.S.N.M. nos. 75811-5 from San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del
Rio Province, Cuba, June, 1928.
ANOLIS GENTILIS Garman
Anolis gentilis Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 10, p. 35, 1888.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79094-6 from Quatres Island, Grenadines, August
17, 1929; nos. 79106-7 from Mustique Island, Grenadines, same date ;
no. 79108 from Petit Nevis, same date; nos. 79109-10 from Petit
Mustique, August 18, 1929; nos. 79113-7 from Baliceaux Island,
August 18, 1929; nos. 79118-30 from Petit Martinique, August 21,
1929; nos. 79133-4 from Carriacou Island, same date; nos. 79150-1
from Frigate Island, August 22, 1929; nos. 79152-8 from Ronde
Island, August 22, 1929; nos. 79159-60 from Caille Island, August 24,
1929; nos. 79162-5 from Diamond Island, August 23, 1929; no.
79196 from Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929.
A careful comparison of all these specimens with one of Garman’s
cotypes from Petit Martinique does not reveal any characters on
which a different species could be based, and lizards from rather
widely separated islands, such as Ronde and Mustique, appear to be
identical in scalation.
ANOLIS GINGIVINUS Cope
Anolis gingivinus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 170.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78958-73 from St. Martin, July 22, 1929; nos.
78978-80 from St. Bartholomew, July 25, 1929.
ISKO, V/ HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN W7,
ANOLIS HOMOLECHIS Boulenger
Anolis homolechis Boulenger, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., vol. 2, p. 28, 1885.
U.S.N.M. nos. 75766-70 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira
Mansion near San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba,
June 16, 1928; nos. 75794-5 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio
Province, Cuba, June 25, 1928; no. 81655 from the north side of
Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, August 14, 1930; nos. 81660-4 from Cusco
Valley, Province of Guantanamo, Cuba, August 16, 1930; nos. 81675-7
from Rio Puerco, Province of Oriente, Cuba, August 29, 1930; no.
81686 from Cabo Cruz, Province of Oriente, Cuba, August 31, 1920;
nos. 81817-20 from Boqueron, Oriente Province, Cuba, August 19,
1930.
ANOLIS LEACHII Duméril and Bibron
Anolis leachit Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 153, 1837.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79030-1 from Grande Terre, Guadeloupe, July 30-
31, 1929. This species differs noticeably from its relative A. bimaculata
in having coarse scales on the occipital and temporal regions and coarser
granules on the body. The weak ventral keels often seen in half grown
examples of A. leachii are not found at any age in A. bimaculata.
ANOLIS LEUCOPHAEUS LEUCOPHAEUS (Garman)
Anolis leucophaeus Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 109, 1888.
Between August 7 and 9, 1930, an excellent series of lizards of this
species was collected on Great Inagua Island; U.S.N.M. nos. 81246-9
from a small islet in the center of Ocean Bight Bay, no. 81250 from
Man of War Bay, nos. 81251-6 from Carmichael Point, nos. 81257-68
‘from Northwest Point, and no. 81269 from the vicinity of Mathew-
town.
The ground color of the entire ventral surface of no. 81251 is
canary-yellow, most intense on the hind legs and beginning of the tail,
lightest on the chin. The skin of the gular fan is grayish wax-yellow,
the scales on it being canary-yellow. The top of the head is lavender-
gray, and the dorsal region is olive-buff, but the canary-yellow tone is
found intermingled with the gray, especially on the limbs and tail,
which are yellow above. The numerous black dots and splotches which
are present all over the body excepting on the chin and on the lumbar
region make a vivid and beautiful contrast to the soft yellowish tones
of the ground color. The variation in pattern is great, however, and
led Cope to give two names, cinnamoneus and moorei, to this Great
Inagua lizard. There are sometimes pale brown stripes in the younger
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
specimens, interspersed with a darker hue, the whole being overlaid
with a fine dark reticulation. The underparts are olive-drab, and
there are several longitudinal series of dark dots beginning on the
labials and chin, and leading backwards to the sides of the neck. The
number of subdigital lamellae on the third and fourth phalanges of the
fourth toe vary from 19 to 25 in number. The supraorbitals are always
in contact. The supraocular plates may be large or small, keeled or
smooth. When large there are five or six. When small there may be
as many as 11, of which 2 or 3 are conspicuously greater than the rest.
The largest male, no. 81269, is 70 mm in length from snout to begin-
ning of tail.
One example of Anolis leucophaeus Garman, now U.S.N.M. no.
81245, was collected on August 5, 1930, on Little Inagua Island. It is
a half-grown male and cannot be distinguished from those on the
larger neighboring island.
ANOLIS LEUCOPHAEUS ALBIPALPEBRALIS (Barbour)
Anolis albipalpebralis Barbour, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 29, p. 215, 1916.
From the Turks Island Group on July 31 and August I, 1930, came
a series of lizards, belonging to a species which Dr. Thomas Barbour
described as Anolis albipalpebralis in 1916, but which he recently
synonymized with leucophaeus,—U.S.N.M. no. 81285-9 from Long
Cay ; nos. 81290-8 (topotypes) from Grand Turks Island ; nos. 81299-
301 from Salt Cay; and no. 81302 from Cotton Cay of the Salt Cay
group. None of the adults are as heavily spotted with black as are the
adults from Great Inagua. The largest male, no. 81285, measures
74 mm from snout to beginning of tail. The skin and scales of the
dewlap are olive-yellow posteriorly, becoming olive-gray anteriorly,
where a small patch of the fan scales on either side is heavily dotted
with slate color. The center of the throat and the malar region are
ochraceous buff. The remainder of the ventral surface is olive-buff.
The top of the head is light clay color and the upper surface of back,
limbs, and tail are drab-gray, with a few indistinct sepia vermiculations
on the nuchal region and behind the axilla. Some of the young and
half-grown lizards show a distinct longitudinal striping of the back,
consisting of a pale middorsal area and a double line of sepia on each
side. Some show a light lateral stripe, which puts an abrupt termination
to the clay color characteristic of the upper surfaces of the young
lizards. Sometimes there are widely spaced square sepia spots down
this middorsal light area, about six of them between occiput and tail,
a suggestion of which we sometimes find in the young leucophacus
from Great Inagua.
iN Ota/, HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 19
The same subspecies appears again in the Caicos group, where the
following localities are represented by lizards obtained from July 24
to August 4, 1930: U.S.N.M. nos. 81413-4 from French Cay; nos.
81415-28 from South Caicos; no. 81429 from Fort George Cay ; nos.
81430-1 from Step Guano Cave on Cape Comete on East Caicos; no.
81432 from Pine Cay ; 81433-7 from West Caicos ; and nos. 81438-42
from Lorimer Creek on Grand Caicos. The largest male, no. 81419,
measures 63 mm from snout to beginning of tail. The coloration of
these Caicos lizards agrees with that of the neighboring Turks Island
form, both being much paler than many of the Mariguana lizards, and
much less spotted than the typical Inaguan form.
ANOLIS LEUCOPHAEUS MARIGUANAE Cochran
Anolis leucophaeus mariguanae Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21,
no. 3, p. 40, Feb. 4, 1931.
Diagnosis —Similar in form to Anolis leucophaeus leucophaeus
(Garman), but differing from it in coloration. Ground color drab-
gray above, lavender-gray beneath, often with a wide clove-brown
lateral band which originates on the loreal region, passes through the
eye and above the ear, and widens above the shoulder, continuing onto
the base of the tail and gradually fading out; a light area usually
bounding its lower border; a second dark lateral stripe beginning on
the malar region just behind the mental, continuing back beneath the
ear and merging in front of the shoulder with the upper lateral stripe
in some cases, in other cases widening and suffusing the entire side of
the throat and upper arm region with a dusky mottling; skin of gular
fan lavender-gray, the scales white or olive-yellow. The young have
dark latero-ventral reticulations, and the throat usually has a series
of dark longitudinal lines. In adult males the tail fin is large and its
upper edge is indistinctly mottled with dark in the region of the rays.
Limbs sometimes unmarked, sometimes with wide, irregular dark bars.
Scales on limbs a little smaller than in Jeucophacus proper ; scales of
tail a little larger.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 81346, an adult male from Mariguana Cay,
July 18, 1930.
Description of the type-——Top of head with two curving frontal
ridges which enclose a shallow median depression; head scales very
unequal in size, the small ones flat, the larger ones with a very in-
distinct ridge or keel; rostral low, much narrower than the mentals ;
four scales in a series between the nostrils; a median row of four
or five transversely elongate scales on the prefrontal region, the
2
“
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2
last of which is in contact with the first scale of the supraorbital semi-
circle ; supraocular disks composed of seven enlarged scales, the inner
ones either in contact with the scales of the supraorbital semicircles
or separated from them by an incomplete series of granular scales ;
supraorbital semicircles broadly in contact with each other, separated
from the occipital by two very irregular series of scales; occipital a
little smaller than the ear-opening ; the scales of the occipital region
considerably larger than the dorsals; canthus rostralis sharp, consist-
ing of four elongated scales, the anterior small; superciliary ridge
consisting of one long anterior scale followed by a double series of
very small scales ; three or four rows of granules separating the super-
ciliaries from the supraocular disk; two medium-sized scales on the
inner border of the elongate superciliary and just in front of the
granules; loreal rows four, the scales keeled; subocular semicircles
keeled, broadly in contact with the supralabials ; supralabials eight or
nine, the suture between the sixth and seventh being under the center
of the eye; seven infralabials ; temporals granular, with a bare indi-
cation of a supratemporal line ; dorsals granular, keeled, with a median
double series of slightly larger ones; ventrals imbricate, small pos-
teriorly and with a very faint indication of a keel, larger anteriorly
and with a somewhat more pronounced keel especially on the chest
scales ; those on the throat very small, rounded and elongate ; fore legs
above covered with sharply keeled scales, those on the upper arm as
large as the posterior ventrals, those on the lower arm a little larger
than the anterior ventrals; anterior face of femur and underside of
tibia similarly covered, the scales of the former gradually decreasing
on the underside, the upper side of both being covered with granules
like those on the back; scales on fingers and toes sharply carinate ;
digital expansion moderate, about 22 lamellae on the second and third
phalanges of the fourth toe; tail long, compressed, the proximal halt
with a high fin supported by about 14 bony rays; caudal verticils
distinctly indicated by a vertical series of scales a little wider than those
surrounding them and with straighter posterior margins, those between
being pointed and narrower, in about seven irregular series, all imbri-
cate and keeled ; the scales covering the upper edge of the tail raised
and slightly spinous, forming a serrated ridge, about five spines cor-
responding to each verticil in the basal portion; dewlap large, with
distant series of scales, the anterior edge thickened; postanal scales
well developed ; a distinct nuchal and dorsal skin fold.
Dimensions.—Snout to beginning of tail, 54 mm; tail, 103 mm;
snout to posterior border of ear, 18 mm; width of head, 11 mm; fore
leg, 25 mm; hind leg, 48 mm.
NON 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 21
Color (in alcohol) —Drab-gray above, lighter beneath; traces of a
clove-brown lateral stripe beginning on the loreal region, continuing
behind the eye over the ear to the shoulder region where it intensifies
in hue, then widening and gradually fading out posteriorly ; a second
clove-brown stripe beginning on the malar region, continuing back-
ward below the ear, and joining the upper stripe in front of the
shoulder; upper parts of limbs and base of tail irregularly mottled
with large clove-brown blotches ; skin of gular fan lavender-gray, the
scales white with a very fine powdering of minute black dots. Eyelid
white, the inner edge dark clove-brown.
Paratypes—U.S.N.M. nos. 81344-5 and 81347-50 from Mariguana
Cay collected on July 18, 1930; nos. 81351-72 from Betsy Bay,
Mariguana Cay, July 18-20, 1930; nos. 81373-5 from Booby Island,
east of Mariguana Cay, July 21, 1930.
Variations —Like its near relative Anolis leucophacus leucophaeus
from Inagua, and its more distant relative A. cristatellus from Puerto
Rico and the Virgin Islands, the new subspecies is subject to consider-
able variation in the minor details of the head-plate arrangement, as
well as in coloration. There may be only four scales between the
nostrils, or twice that number. The supraocular disk may be in contact
with the supraorbital semicircles, or separated by one or two rows of
granules. The occipital may be set off from the supraorbital semi-
circles by two to four very irregular scales. The median transversely
enlarged scales on the snout are often subdivided and scarcely enlarged,
and may or may not touch the anterior supraorbitals. The color
pattern is often much more distinct than it is in the type, especially in
half-grown specimens. On the other hand, it may be obscured by a
highly melanistic condition, in which the whole upper surface is
suffused with blackish brown, extending even onto the ventral regions.
Very rarely the whole body is pale drab.
Relationships——The subspecies from Mariguana Island is more
closely related to leucophacus albipalpebralis than to the typical Inaguan
leucophaeus, since the first two forms are without the leopard spots
so characteristic of the last-named.
The two previously described forms seem to attain a larger size
than the new subspecies, the largest individual of which is only 65 mm
long from snout to vent, out of 33 examples. Several of the Inaguan
and Turks Island lizards measure at least 70 mm, and appear to be
heavier in structure, although the difference here is scarcely measur-
able. The Turks Island form is very light in color and does not have
the broad dark lateral stripe which almost always appears on Mari-
guanan lizards.
LS)
0
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The young of leucophacus mariquanae are very similar to the adults,
except that their colors are intensified. They have a very broad lateral
stripe of black, set off at its lower margin by a narrow sepia lateral
band. The middorsal area is chocolate-brown, with very few reticula-
tions. The young of leucophacus albipalpebralis have on the neck a few
large light blotches edged with a fine dark line. A pale dorsal stripe
is in some instances crossed by three or four large squarish blotches ;
in other cases these are much lightened, and the dark pigment is con-
centrated at the edges of the light stripe as two or more narrow lines.
The young of typical leucophaeus are distinct from either of the others
in having a very fine pattern of dark reticulations and spots all over
the body and sides, which now have a light sepia tone, but which later
in life fade to pale drab or olive-buff and leave the black spots stand-
ing out very markedly. Some of them have traces of four longitudinal
light stripes separating slightly darker areas, and some have faintly
delineated transverse dorsal blotches, but these are never so prominent
as they are in the young from Turks Island.
ANOLIS LINEATUS Daudin
Anolis lineatus Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 4, p. 66, 1802.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79317-20 from Aruba Island, September 17, 1929.
Two months afterward the gular fold of no. 79318, having retained its
color in preserving fluid, was cadmium orange on the edges, turning to
wax-yellow toward the throat, with several heavy black longitudinal
stripes.
ANOLIS LUCIAE Garman
Anolis luciae Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 19, p. 44, 1887.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79062-5 from Mount Grenier, Santa Lucia, August
10, 1920.
ANOLIS LUCIUS Duméril and Bibron
Anolis lucius Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén. vol. 4, p. 105, 1837.
U.S.N.M. nos. 75834-5 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camaguey
Province, Cuba, August 28, 1828; no. 75842 from Jumagua Hills,
west of Sagua La Grande, Santa Clara Province, Cuba, August 2, 1928.
ANOLIS LUTEOSIGNIFER Garman
Anolis luteostguifer Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 4, 1888.
One example, U.S.N.M. no. 81728, was taken on Cayman Brac,
September 10, 1930.
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 23
ANOLIS MAYNARDII Garman
Anolis maynardiu Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 7, 1888.
Three lizards, U.S.N.M. nos. 81729-31 are from Little Cayman,
taken September 12-13, 1930.
ANOLIS MESTREI Barbour and Ramsden
Anolis mestrei Barbour and Ramsden, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 209,
p. 19, 1916.
U.S.N.M. no. 75796 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio
Province, Cuba, June 25, 1928; no. 75829 from El Rinconada, Sierra
Camagua, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, August 27, 1928; nos. 75832-3
and nos. 75836-7 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camagiiey Province,
Cuba, August 28, 1928; no. 75838 from the Santa Cruz Mountains,
Camaguey Province, Cuba, September 1, 1928.
ANOLIS ORDINATUS Cope
Anolis ordinatus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1864, p. 175.
This species may be represented by the following examples:
U.S.N.M. nos. 81528-32 from Cay Sal on June 17, 1930; nos. 81533-5
from Elbow Cay of the Cay Sal Group on June 19, 1930; nos. 81537-57
from Cotton Cay of the Cay Sal Group on June 23, 1930; no. 81474
from Knife Cay of the Ragged Island Group on June 28, 1930; no.
81480 from Margaret Island of the Ragged Island Group on July 2,
1930; nos. 81499-501 from Crooked Island on July 14, 1930.
The true status of this species is very doubtful and this identification
is to be considered as provisional until specimens from ail the places
from which it is now recorded have been minutely compared.
ANOLIS PORCATUS Gray
Anolis porcatus Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, p. 112, 1840.
U.S.N.M. nos. 75753-8 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira
Mansion, near San Diego de los Bafios, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba,
June 16, 1928; no. 75825 from one-quarter mile northwest of Vega
Alta, Cuba, August 12, 1928. To the last named specimen the follow-
ing field note applies:
A heavy rain fell about 3: 30 so we went under a cow shelter near a farm-
house. While waiting for the rain to stop we collected eight frogs [see 75817-24
Hyla septentrionalis| and one lizard under the eaves of this shelter.
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOES 92
ANOLIS PULCHELLUS Duméril and Bibron
Anolis pulchellus Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 97, 1837.
U.S.N.M. no. 78957 from Virgin Gorda, July 19, 1929.
ANOLIS RICHARDII Duméril and Bibron
Anolis richardii Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 141, 1837.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79090-3 from Admiralty Bay, Bequia Island, August
16, 1929; nos. 79135-8 from Carriacou Island, August 21, 1929; nos.
79139-46 from High Hill, about 2 miles east of Hillsborough, Big
Carriacou Island, August 21, 1929 ; nos. 79167-89 from the Annandale
Estate, Grenada, August 25, 1929; no. 79197, a young one taken at
Mineral Springs, northeast Grenada, August 27, 1929.
A detailed comparison of the lizards from Bequia and Carriacou with
specimens from Grenada, including one of the cotypes of Anolis
trossulus Garman, makes it apparent that they are alike in every
essential of scalation. If any valid color differences exist, they are not
apparent in the material at hand.
ANOLIS ROQUET (Lacépéde)
Lacerta roquet Lacépéde, Hist. Nat. Quad. Ovip. Serp. vol. 1 (synopsis-méthod.,
div. 4), 1778.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79038-9 from High Mountains, Martinique, August
8, 1929; nos. 79040-55 from Diamond Hill, South Martinique, August
9, 1929; nos. 79056-9 from the north shore of Fort de France Harbor,
Martinique, August 7, 1934. “ Tree-climbing lizards ”.
ANOLIS SAGREI Duméril and Bibron
Anolis sagret Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 4, p. 149, 1837.
U.S.N.M. nos. 75759-65 and nos. 75771-89 from one-fourth mile
south of La Guira Mansion near San Diego de los Banos, Pinar del
Rio, Cuba, June 16, 1928; nos. 81690-4 from Palomito Cay, Oriente
Province, Cuba, September 1, 1930; nos. 81695-6 from Blanco Cay,
Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 6, 1930; nos. 81697-8 from
Doce Leguas in Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 7, 1930; no.
81699 from Cachiboca Cay, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 8,
1930; nos. 81762-3 from Sandy Cay, Cuba, September 19, 1930; no.
81824 from Puerto Portillo, Oriente Province, Cuba, August 29, 1930;
no. 81891 from East Point, Second Cay, Cuba, September 19, 1930.
A few weeks after being preserved, the gular skin of no. 75765 was
burnt sienna, and the gular scales were light chrome-yellow; the
~
NOS HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS——-COCHRAN Z
wm
dorsal light stripe was vinaceous-cinnamon, while the head, nuchal
region, and shoulders were clove-brown. The sides of the body, as
well as the limbs, were drab. The ventral surfaces were palely irides-
cent with blue, pink and green. In no. 75762, only the scales on the
edge of the dewlap were chrome-yellow, the other gular scales being
clove-brown like the gular skin itself.
ANOLIS STRATULUS Cope
Anolis stratulus Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 200, 1861.
U.S.N.M. no. 78928 from Bordeaux Hill, St. John’s, July 13, 1929;
elevation 1,277 feet.
ANOLIS TERRAE-ALTAE Barbour
Anolis terrae-altae Barbour, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 28, p. 76, 1915.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78998-79001 from St. George (= Cabritt Island),
Saints Islands, August I, 1929; nos. 79002-3 from Mount Chameau,
St. Peter, same date. A note with the St. George specimens states the
dewlap was pale orange in life.
Since not all scientific collections may have examples of Anolis
leachii (=ferreus) from Gaudeloupe, to which Barbour compared the
Saints Island A. terrae-altae in his original diagnosis, it will not be
amiss to include here a more detailed description of one of the six
specimens of A. terrae-altae listed above :
An adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 79002, has the top of the head with two
low diverging frontal ridges, disappearing before they reach the level
of the nostrils and enclosing a feebly pronounced frontal hollow ; head
scales smooth, only the scales of the supraorbital disk showing faint
keels; the distance between the anterior parts of the orbits very
nearly equalling that from the orbit to the end of the snout; rostral
low, slightly narrower than the mentals ; four scales in a row between
the narrow scales bordering each nostril above, the median pair some-
what enlarged; the median snout scales immediately behind these
internasal scales in a single series, transversely enlarged ; supraorbital
semicircles composed of six or seven enlarged scales, the third the
largest, the fourth and fifth separated from their fellows by a single
row of small scales; occipital about two-thirds the size of the ear
opening, separated from the supraorbital semicircles by two rows of
scales rather irregular in shape; those posterior to the occipital more
regular in shape and smaller than those in front of it; supraorbital
disk composed of five polygonal, faintly keeled scales, narrowly
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
separated from the semicircle by one row of granules, which in front
of the disk form a patch of granules; canthus rostralis very sharp,
consisting of three subequal elongated shields, merging with the super-
ciliary ridge which also has three scales, of which the middle one is
much the longest, the posterior one followed in turn by a double row
of granules; five loreal rows; subocular semicircles keeled, widely in
contact with the posterior supralabials; seven enlarged supralabials,
the seventh under the center of the eye, followed by three or four
granular labial scales ; temporal granules a little larger than the dorso-
laterals ;a well-marked double series of small scales forming the supra-
temporal line ; dorsal and lateral granules minute, tubercular ; four or
five median rows of slightly enlarged, keeled scales down the center
of the back beginning on the nuchal region, continuing on the tail as
a crest of considerably enlarged scales; ventral scales medium-sized,
smooth, rectangular, those on the throat small and bluntly tuberculate ;
anterior face of fore and hind legs covered with large, weakly keeled
scales much larger than the ventrals; scales covering the hands and
feet above very faintly unicarinate ; digital expansion wide, with about
24 lamellae under the second and third phalanges of the fourth toe,
39 under the entire toe ; tail long, compressed, with very poorly-marked
verticils of aligned scales; those between similar in size but not in
alignment, in about five or six irregular rows, all imbricate, keeled and
distinctly mucronate at the tips, surmounted by a strongly serrate
edge of enlarged, keeled scales triangular in profile, four (sometimes
three) to every verticil, the last of each group distinctly enlarged ;
dewlap with many closely set series of scales, whose posterior borders
are projecting and mucronate; postanal plates large and well de-
veloped ; a slight skin fold along the neck and back.
Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 59 mm; tail, 114 mm; orbit to tip of
snout, 9.5 mm; orbit to orbit, 7 mm; snout to posterior ear, 19 mm,
snout to center of eye, 12 mm; width of head, 11.5 mm; fore leg,
26 mm; hind leg, 42 mm; tibia, 15 mm.
Color in alcohol.—Entire head olive-buff ; upper parts of body and
limbs very pale immaculate glaucous-blue; lower surfaces and tail
ecru-drab.
Variation—The other specimen from St. Peter, U.S.N.M. no.
79003, a young female, differs slightly from the described specimen in
having even weaker indications of keels on the supraocular disk, the
supraocular semicircles mutually in contact for a short distance, larger
preoccipital scales, and only one scale between the occipital and the
semicircles.
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 27
‘The four specimens from St. George (= Cabritt Island), U.S.N.M.
nos. 78998-79001, an adult male and three young females, show a much
browner cast of coloring. The male ranges from a wood-brown on the
head to burnt umber and seal-brown on the back and sides, the tail
dark fawn color, the throat and chest drab, the posterior underparts
pale ecru-drab. One female, no. 79000, is almost the same in tone,
while the other two are lighter. There is a faint suggestion of latero-
ventral mottling on two of the females, but otherwise the lizards are
immaculate.
ANOLIS VINCENTII Garman
Anolis vincentii Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 19, p. 46, 1887.
U.S.N.M. no. 79066 from Brighton, St. Vincent, August 14, 1929;
nos. 79078-89 from Mount St. Andrews, St. Vincent, August 15, 1929.
NOROPS OPHIOLEPIS (Cope)
Anolis (Dracontura) ophiolepis Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 211,
1861.
U.S.N.M. no. 75790 from one-fourth mile south of La Guira
Mansion, near San Diego de los Banos, Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba,
June 16, 1928.
CYCLURA CARINATA CARINATA (Harlan)
Cyclura carinata Harlan, Journ. Acad. Philadelphia, vol. 4, p. 242, 1824.
An excellent series of nine lizards, U.S.N.M. nos. 81785-93, was
collected on Long Cay of the Turks Island Group, on July 28, 1930;
two more, nos. 81781-2, came from Long Cay south of South Caicos,
July 29, 1930; another, no. 81783, from the west end of East Caicos
on July 29, 1930; another, no. 81218, from Water Cay of the Fort
George isles in the Caicos group on July 25, 1930; a series of 20, nos.
81219-33, nos. 81776-80, of allages from Big Iguana Cay, East Caicos,
July 28, 1930.
CYCLURA CARINATA BARTSCHI Cochran
Cyclura carinata bartschi Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 3,
p: 30; Heb: 4, 1o31.
Diagnosis —Nasals broadly in contact with the rostral and with
each other; a pair of supranasals also closely in contact with each
other ; the scales of the prefrontal region rather uniform in size and
shape, and grading into the smaller frontal and parietal scales ; supra-
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
orbital semicircles barely differentiated by an occasional somewhat
enlarged scale ; scales of the supraocular region distinctly smaller than
the other upper head scutes; two to four enlarged vertical canthals
on each side of the head; nuchal and caudal crests widely separated
from the dorsal crest, which is 12 mm high (in adult males) and is
composed of 60 to 73 spines (average in 6 specimens, 63.5) ; nuchal
crest composed of 16 to 20 spines (average 17.1), the highest of which
measures 15 mm; four vertical rows of small scales between the fifth
and sixth verticils of the tail; eight supralabials (rarely nine) to a
point below the center of the eye ; rostral wider than the mental ; three
to four enlarged tibial scales equaling the vertical diameter of the
tympanic membrane.
Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 81212 (collector’s number 172), an adult
male from Booby Cay, east of Mariguana Island, Bahamas, collected
on July 21, 1930.
Description of the type-—Rostral wider than the mental and broadly
in contact with the nasals, which are broadly in contact with each
other; a pair of slightly enlarged triangular supranasals likewise in
contact with each other, and lying in the angle behind the two nasals ;
no enlarged prefrontal, frontal or parietal scales ; supraorbital semi-
circles barely differentiated by an occasional somewhat enlarged
scale: scales of the supraocular region distinctly smaller than the
other upper head scutes, with a very slight indication of a supra-
ocular disk; occipital rather large and located well forward, sur-
rounded by irregular scales which are smallest behind it and a little
larger to the right and the left; all the scales of the head, except
those on the snout, keeled but not tubercular ; two or three enlarged,
vertical canthals on each side of the head; a well-developed series of
slightly keeled supraoculars carried back a little beyond the orbit;
eight upper and nine lower labials to a point directly below the center
of the eye; three or four rows of small scales separating the supra-
labials from the suboculars ; no swollen scales in the temporal region,
only a few slightly enlarged and spinose scales in front of the ear,
and some enlarged smooth scales below the angle of the mouth;
about two rows of faintly keeled scales separating the infralabials
from the three or four rows of more heavily keeled malar scales ;
dorsal scales small, ventrals slightly larger; a nuchal crest com-
posed of 16 spines, the longest of which measures 15 mm; a dorsal
crest, completely separated from both nuchal and caudal crests, com-
posed of 60 spines which are conspicuously uneven in basal width and
in height, the longest of which measures 12 mm; the caudal crest low,
the highest spine only 6 mm in length, every third spine being enlarged
NOW HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 29
to correspond to the verticils of enlarged and highly spinose scales ;
four rows of small rectangular scales between the fifth and sixth verti-
cils ; upper surface of limbs with slightly imbricated, keeled, posteriorly
pointed scales which are considerably larger than the body scales ; on
the upper arm about 9, on the lower arm about 7 of these scales to the
vertical diameter of the tympanum; the scales on the outer tibia the
largest, spinose, hexagonal, about four to the vertical diameter of the
tympanic membrane; 18 and 20 femoral pores arranged in a single
row; inner side of second toe with one comb, of third toe with two
combs each consisting of three prominent and two small lobes; tail
slightly compressed.
Color (in alcohol).—Head and scales of crest dull pea-green ; skin
of upper parts mouse-gray to dull olive-green with a very indistinct
fine reticulation of lighter hue; skin of lower parts dull sage-green ;
under surfaces of feet and tail dark olive-buff.
Dimensions.—Head to posterior border of ear, 64 mm; width of
head, 44 mm; vertical diameter of tympanum, 11 mm; head and body,
300 mm; tail (reproduced), 260 mm.
Variation There are five paratypes (U.S.N.M. nos. 87213-17),
four of them adult females, and the fifth a very young one of in-
determinate sex, all taken at the same time and place as the type
specimen. The extreme variations are given in the specific diagnosis.
In only one specimen do the nasals fail to touch; in this animal the
inner border of each nasal plate is cut off by a suture, so that there are
two small internasals abnormally formed. The femoral pores are
rather low in number ranging between 16 and 20 in the present series,
and averaging 17.9 for all. The only lizard with an approximately
complete tail has a head and body length of 250 mm, the tail with tip
missing measures 320 mm. The coloration in the adult females is much
like that of the type. The young has a few light transverse dorsal
saddles outlined with a darker tone.
Relationships——The subspecies from Booby Cay is obviously a link
between the typical carinata from Turks Island and nuchalis from
Fortune Island. Booby Cay, east of Mariguana Cay, from which the
new subspecies was collected, is just about midway between the other
two type localities.
Cyclura carinata proper may be readily distinguished from C. carin-
ata bartschi by a combination of several characters. True carinata has
the nasals separated by a good-sized wedge-shaped scale; in bartschi
the nasals are ordinarily in contact, agreeing in this respect with
nuchalis. The new subspecies has as a rule more scale-rows between
the caudal verticils, as well as larger tibial scales, more scales in the
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
dorsal crest, and fewer supralabials than does the Turks Island form.
Nevertheless, it is much closer to carinata than it is to nuchalis which
has swollen enlarged scales on the snout and hence is at once separable
from the other two forms under discussion.
We had been told upon inquiry all along Mariguana Cay that Booby Cay
had iguanas upon it, and this information was confirmed, for shortly after our
arrival we started off a huge fellow who went crashing through the brush and
took refuge in a hole, for these iguanas den like rabbits and when pursued slip
underground. We had made nooses of wire and tried to catch some of them
alive, but the heavy weight of the animals quickly caused my copper wire to
untwist at the loop and the old fellow went crashing through the brush scared
by this new experience. Nye had a similar experience, only his wire parted at
the stick and the iguana carried it off. I am afraid this will be a dead iguana,
for I saw him choking. Further efforts to obtain these animals alive resulted
in a waste of a great amount of time, and caused us to decide to give up this
achievement. Later in the afternoon Chittick and Nye went iguana-hunting and
secured four. I had shot one in the morning and we had caught a baby alive,
which will give us six specimens for scientific study.
CYCLURA MACLEAYII Gray
Cyclura MacLeayii Gray, Cat. Lizards Brit. Mus., p. 190, 1845.
Examples of this handsome species are still fairly common on some
of the cays, judging by the numbers brought back in recent collections.
It is represented in the present collection by U.S.N.M. no, 81784 from
Savilla Cay, Oriente Province, Cuba, September 4, 1930; nos. 81794-8
from Cabeza del Este, Caya Blanca, Doce Leguas, Cuba, September 8,
1930; nos. 81799-805 from Cachiboca Bay, Cuba, same date ; no. 81 806
from the cay east of Anclitos Cay, Cuba, September 8, 1930; no.
81810 from Cantilles Cay, Cuba, September 21, 1930, and no. 81811
from Mathias Cay, Cuba, September 22, 1930.
CYCLURA NUCHALIS Barbour and Noble
Cyclura nuchalis Barbour and Noble, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 60, p. 156,
1916.
Eleven examples of this interesting species (U.S.N.M. nos. 81234-
44) were taken on Fish Cay of the Fortune Island Group on July 11,
1930. The number of spines in the dorsal crest ranges between 62 and
72, averaging 67.7. The nuchal crest has 15 to IQ spines, averaging
16.7, and these are irregular both in length and in basal width, as
3arbour and Noble indicated. The femoral pores are numerous, run-
ning from 21 to 28, and averaging 24.7. On the distal part of the tail
the verticils are not very distinct, but when they can be seen there are
five rows of small scales separating them. The coloration of the adult
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 31
male, U.S.N.M. no. 81239, is as follows: Ground color dull indigo-blue
above lightening to glaucous blue beneath, with coarse reticulations of
brick-red on the sides and back; posterior part of head indigo-blue,
with the snout and frontal portions coral-red to rufous ; the malar and
labial scales orange chrome to coral-red, with a suggestion of these
colors on the chin, which is mostly dull china-blue ; nuchal spines pale
olive-buff slightly tinged with flesh color; dorsal spines mostly light
coral-red, with occasionally a dull china-blue one; tail light indigo, a
few of the anterior caudal spines tinged with pink ; upper surfaces of
fore and hind feet black. The other adult specimens are similar in
coloration, although they are not so bright in hue. A young specimen,
no. 81242, is uniformly dull indigo, without any dorsal crossbands
whatever or any indication of a reticulated pattern.
The largest specimen, no. 81239, measures 270 mm from snout to
end of body; unfortunately its tail is reproduced. A smaller lizard
measuring 215 mm in head and body has a complete tail 360 mm long.
The young specimen already referred to is 140 mm from snout to
vent.
We have been told repeatedly upon inquiring about iguanas that we would
find them on Fish Cay, and so we did. We obtained a dozen good-sized speci-
mens among the bushes by snaring them with string ncoses on the end of a
stick. We were considerably surprised, however, when we took them from our
bag on board the ship to find that four of them were dead; evidently they have
a way of committing suicide, similar to the ones we collected in the Gulf of
California on Angel de la Guardia Island (Sauromalus hispidus now in the
American Museum of Natural History). We have saved the eight remaining
and hope to carry them through alive to Washington. Peters shot four more.
The dead specimens I have injected with strong formalin-alcohol mixture and
they have been put in alcohol. These iguanas are vegetable feeders. They are
fairly tame and persisted in chasing the noose on the end of our sticks, instead of
running their heads through them, or letting us place it around their necks.
When hard pressed they finally dash into holes that look like huge sand crab
burrows, or when near the coast, where there is a hurricane rampart, they seek
refuge in the crevices of the rocks.
LEIOCEPHALUS CARINATUS CARINATUS (Gray)
Letocephalus carinatus Gray, Philos. Mag., vol. 2, p. 208, 1837.
U.S.N.M. no. 75793 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio
Province, Cuba, June 21, 1928; no. 75810 from Puerta del Ancon,
Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, June 29, 1928; no. 81658 from Macola
Hill, Province of Guantanamo, Cuba, August 15, 1930; no. 81673
from Rio Puerco, Province of Oriente, August 30, 1930; no. 81687
from Cabo Cruz, Oriente, Cuba, August 31, 1930; nos. 81708-9 from
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Doce Leguas, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, September 7, 1930; no.
81710 from Grenada Cay, Doce Leguas, Cuba, September 9, 1930;
nos. 81711-2 from Caballones, Doce Leguas, collected on the same day ;
nos. 81715-7 from Grande Cay, Doce Leguas, also on September 9,
1930; nos. 81742-9 from Cayman Brac, September 10 and 11, 1930.
At the present time it is not practicable to distinguish between the
Cuban carinatus and the specimens listed below. A very detailed study
of the variations of carinatus in Cuba will be necessary for an under-
standing of the status of the forms on some of the outlying islands.
These lizards came from cays in the Ragged Island Group as
follows: U.S.N.M. nos. 81455-63 from Flamingo Cays on June 25,
1930; nos. 81465-70 from cays adjacent to South Channel Cays on
June 28, 1930; nos. 81472-73 from Knife Cay on June 28, 1930; nos.
81476-78 from Johnson’s Cay on July 2, 1930; no. 81479 from Double
Breasted Cay on July 2, 1930.
Johnson's Cay—We took a couple of lizards of the curled tailed type but
the tail seems to be more spiny on the back than the previous type, but this
may be pure imagination on my part.
As a matter of fact, the tail is very spiny in every adult specimen
from all of the cays mentioned above. Those from Johnson’s Cay,
three in number, have an unusually enlarged middle supraocular, which
appears to have come through the fusion of the third and fourth, or
the second and third, as there is one less than the usual number of
supraocular scales (six) found in specimens from the surrounding
cays. A great many specimens from every cay will have to be studied
before a definite decision as to the stability of this character can be
made.
LEIOCEPHALUS CARINATUS PUNCTATUS Cochran
Leiocephalus carinatus punctatus Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21,
NO. 3, P. 39; /Feb. 4, TO3T.
Diagnosis —Closely resembling the Cuban Leiocephalus carinatus,
but differing from it in having a larger scale at the upper anterior
region of the ear, as well as in possessing a more vivid color pattern
with a somewhat different arrangement of light and dark pigment
especially on the head.
Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 81560 (collector’s no. 135) a male from the
north shore of the bay at Jamaica Wells, Acklins Island, July 6, 1930.
Description of the Type—Head shields large, the anterior smooth,
the posterior very faintly ridged; four scales (an internasal and three
prefrontals) in a line between the rostral and the beginning of the
supraorbital ring; prefrontals and internasals embracing a_ partly
INO 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 33
discontinuous medial series of three scales, the first small and touching
the rostral ; the second prefrontal the largest, in contact with its fellow,
separated from the canthals by a series of scales; two canthal scales,
the second the larger, followed by five elongate superciliaries, the last
one the smallest ; six slightly ridged supraoculars, partially separated
from the frontals by an incomplete series of small scales and from the
superciliaries by two series except posteriorly where there is a single
row; frontals moderate in size, mutually in contact along their entire
inner borders ; occipital small, with a small scale immediately following
it, the two scales bordered on each side by two distinct parietals, the
inner about half the size of the outer, which is about five times the
area of the anterior occipital ; an enlarged, heavily ridged scale at the
outer posterior margin of the outer parietal; no other conspicuously
enlarged post-parietals ; five upper and five lower labials to a point
below the center of the eye; malar scales large and conspicuous, the
first two subequal and separated from the infralabials by a single row
of scales ; temporal scales small and mostly uniform in size, those just
in front of the ear gradually enlarging, the upper one about three
times as large as the surrounding scales; anterior border of the ear
with five or six unequal projecting scales, the longest reaching one-
third of the distance across the tympanum. Dorsal scales moderately
large, imbricate, very slightly mucronate; laterals smaller than the
dorsals, the gradation in size being very gradual; ventrals slightly
smaller than the dorsals, smooth, their posterior borders slightly den-
ticulate ; about 61 dorsal scales from the occiput to a point directly
above the vent ; about 14 dorsal scales equivalent to the distance from
snout to occiput ; nuchal scales moderately small, those behind the ear
and in the shoulder folds like the dorsals but very small; no lateral
fold. The adpressed hind limb reaches to the center of the eye. Digits
compressed, the fourth toe with 24 tricarinate lamellae, the scales on
the upper surfaces of the limbs relatively small; a very distinct but low
dorsal crest beginning at the occiput and continuing without inter-
ruption to the end of the tail, increasing on the posterior part of the
body and becoming much higher on the tail; the caudal scales keeled
and highly mucronate ; no verticils ; tail slightly compressed. The keels
of the dorsals and laterals converge posteriorly. A pair of widely-
separated and very inconspicuous postanals in the male.
Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 72 mm; head to posterior ear, 20 mm;
tail (reproduced), 112 mm; fore leg, 28 mm; hind leg, 60 mm; width
of head, 15 mm.
Color (in alcohol ).—Body and limbs dull bottle green above, highly
iridescent ; top of head sepia, the supraocular region deep clove- brown ;
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
a brilliant pattern of white spots on the prefrontals and frontals and
a large white spot on the occipital ; a white line beginning in front of
the first supraocular and continuing backward on the outer edges of
the supraoculars to the outer parietals, behind which the line widens
and turns to an iridescent olive-green dorsolateral stripe, much invaded
by darker pigment until it finally vanishes on the side of the tail; a
similar much interrupted median dorsal line along the crest; a sepia
lateral stripe beginning behind the eye, and widening and gradually
losing itself about midbody; loreal region, lips, and anterior lower
surfaces pea-green to sage-green; a faint sepia mottling on the
throat; the posterior part of the body and under surfaces of hind
legs lightening to olive-buff ; some indistinct, transverse, lateroventral
bars of pale china-blue, and a few small light spots of the same hue on
the upper surfaces of the limbs; tail with alternate rings of sepia and
white, widening distally.
Paratypes—An excellent series of lizards of all sizes and ages was
obtained on Acklins Island, U.S.N.M. nos. 81482-9 from the hills near
Cornucopia taken on July 7, 1930, and no. 81481 from Jamaica
Bay. From Castle Island, just south of Acklins came U.S.N.M. nos.
81562-9, taken July 8, 1930. The same form occurs on Crooked Island,
for U.S.N.M. nos. 81492-6 were taken there on July 14, 1930.
V ariation.—About the usual amount of variation is seen in the head
plates of this new form. The second pair of prefrontals is usually
larger than the others, and in broad contact, although sometimes the
presence of an unusually large median snout scale prevents much
contact. The frontals and supraoculars may be fully separated by a
complete series of small scales, or this series may be much reduced and
interrupted. As to coloration, the light longitudinal stripes are usually
in evidence, while the dark head with the contrasting brillance of the
light markings is an almost invariable condition. The females resemble
the males in color. The very young ones, however, do not show such
a definite pattern. U.S.N.M. nos. 81488 and 81489, respectively
36 mm and 32 mm snout to anus, have the top of the head drab-gray,
with small sepia dots scattered uniformly over the head plates. The
body likewise is drab-gray, with the light longitudinal lines plainly
showing, and the dorsal region and upper limb surfaces are spotted
with sepia, like the head. The throats of most of the adults have dark
narrow lines converging anteriorly ; in the type this pattern is greatly
obscured and interrupted by the numerous very light-colored scales,
which tend to form short transverse groups of three or four scales all
over the throat and chest regions. One very old male, no. 81481
measuring 105 mm, has lost practically all traces of color pattern. Its
NOE 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS——-COCHRAN 35
scales are much more mucronate than is the case in other smaller ones,
even the ventrals being angulate and bristling.
Relationships——As one might expect, the new form is very closely
related to the Cuban carinatus. The coloration is the most obvious
distinguishing feature, but close examination reveals the fact that
the scale above the ear is usually prominent in the Acklins and Crooked
Island forms, while in the Cuban lizard it is seldom enlarged at all.
The malar scales of the new subspecies are larger also, while the first
two pairs are especially well marked and nearly square in shape. The
Cuban form has shorter anterior malars. The scales on the upper
surfaces of the limbs in the new form seem to be slightly smaller and
less continuously keeled than in the Cuban lizard, although this feature
is very difficult to express by scale counts. The similarities of the two
forms outweigh these minor differences, and it is perferable to bestow
only a trinomial on the new lizard until further study can be made of
the typical carinatus from Cuba.
LEIOCEPHALUS CUBENSIS (Gray)
Tropidurus (Leiolaemus) cubensis Gray, Ann. Nat. Hist., vol. 5, p. 110, Apr.,
1840.
U.S.N.M. no. 75831 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camagttey Pro-
vince, Cuba, August 28, 1928.
LEIOCEPHALUS INAGUAE Cochran
Liocephalus schreibersii (not of Gravenhorst) Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20,
p. 110, 1888; extr. p. 10 (Inagua, Bahamas).—Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp.
Zool., vol. 44, no. 2, p. 301 (part), 1914.
Liocephalus sp. Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1894 (1895), p. 436
(probably L. schreibersii Great Inagua).
Leiocephalus inaguae Cochran, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci., vol. 21, no. 3,
p. 38, Feb. 4, 1931.—Noble, Amer. Mus. Novit., 549, p. 18, Aug. 11, 1932.
Sinee Garman concluded that the lizards from Inagua Island were
identical with those from Hispaniola described by Gravenhorst as
Pristinotus schreibersii, no fresh material had come under the ob-
servation of a student of West Indian herpetology until Dr. Bartsch
brought back a large and well-preserved collection of Leiocephali
from Inagua, an examination of which left no doubt whatever that the
species merits full recognition and separation from the neighboring
forms found on Hispaniola, Cuba, and the Bahama Islands.
Diagnosis ——A distinct lateral fold; four scales (an internasal and
three prefrontals) between the rostral and the supraorbital ring ; the
second prefrontal large and in contact with its fellow; body scales
3
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
moderately large, 70 to 82 dorsals between occiput and beginning of
tail, 16 to 20 in the distance between end of snout and occiput ; males
with a row of large squarish black blotches on the shoulder region con-
tinuing down the sides and fading out rapidly; faint traces of two
more rows of squarish blotches on the back.
Type—U.S.N.M. no. 81277, an adult male from Man of War Bay,
Great Inagua Island, collected on August 8, 1930.
Description of the type-—Head shields large, slightly ridged ex-
cepting those which border the rostral; four scales (an internasal and
three prefrontals) in a line between the rostral and the beginning of
the supraorbital ring ; prefrontals and internasals embracing a partly
discontinuous medial series of three scales, the first small and not
touching the rostral; prefrontals separated from the canthals by a
series of rather small scales ; two canthal scales, the second much the
larger, followed by four superciliaries, the third the longest, the last
two rather small ; seven bluntly ridged supraoculars, separated from the
frontals by a single row of keeled scales and from the superciliaries
by two rows of scales except posteriorly where there is a single row ;
frontals moderate in size, mutually in contact along their entire inner
borders ; occipital small, bordered on each side by two distinct parietals,
the inner about half the size of the outer, which is about three times
the size of the occipital ; a transverse series of about eight postparietal
scales, smallest at the nape, enlarging and becoming ridged and tuber-
cular laterally, the outermost one lying along the posterior border of the
outer parietal and nearly as large as the occipital ; four upper and five
lower labials to a point below the center of the eye; temporal scales
rather uniform in size, those above the ear not enlarged; anterior
border of the ear with three unequal projecting scales, the longest
reaching one-third of the distance across the tympanum ; dorsal scales
moderately large, imbricate, mucronate; laterals very much smaller
than the dorsals, the gradation in size being rather rapid; ventrals
very slightly smaller than the dorsals, smooth, their posterior borders
scarcely denticulate ; about 70 dorsal scales from the occiput to a point
directly above the vent ; about 16 dorsal scales equivalent to the distance
from snout to occiput; nuchal scales moderately small, those behind
the ear very minute and sharply tubercular; those in the shoulder
folds keeled like the dorsals but small; a distinct lateral fold present.
The adpressed hind limb reaches to the anterior corner of the eye.
Digits compressed, the fourth toe with 25 tricarinate lamellae. A very
distinct dorsal crest beginning at the occiput and continuing unbroken
to the end of the tail, increasing slightly on the posterior part of the
body and highest on the distal half of the tail; the caudal scales keeled
NOS 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN oY,
and mucronate ; no verticils ; tail compressed. The keels of the dorsals
and of the laterals are directed backward and slightly upward, so that
the rows of scales converge slightly. There are about 20 longitudinal
rows of dorsals across the back. A transverse series of six con-
spicuously enlarged postanals in the male.
Dimensions.—Snout to vent, 83 mm; head to posterior ear, 22 mm;
tail, 142 mm; fore leg, 37 mm; hind leg, 75 mm; width of head, 15 mm.
Color (in alcohol). —Body color olive-buff, the dorsal scales with a
metallic greenish iridescence; a lateral series of about nine large,
rectangular black spots, beginning behind the ear and continuing to
above the groin, the posterior ones becoming much lighter ; those behind
the arm bordered above by traces of a scarlet vermilion stripe; from
the lower borders of these spots issue narrow transverse bands of scar-
let vermilion with pale blue scales scattered regularly in them; these
transverse bands becoming very light towards the center of the belly
and finally fading out; traces of paired dark spots down the back ;
head immaculate above; upper and lower labials with vertical pearl-
gray markings on the sutures of the scales; throat with longitudinal
pearl-gray broken stripes, which become much darker on the sides of
the neck and are nearly black beneath the ear ; fore legs faintly barred
with pearl-gray; hind legs irregularly barred with scarlet vermilion,
pale blue and olive-buff; tail with faint widely spaced bars of pale
gray above, immaculate below. Posterior femur with a broad white
stripe bordered by scarlet vermilion above and below.
Paratypes.—In addition to the specimen designated as the type, |
have examined 13 paratypes from Great Inagua Island, as follows :—
U.S.N.M. no. 81278, an adult female from Carmichael Point,
August 7, 1930; no. 81256, a very young male from the same locality ;
no. 81279, an adult male from the center of Ocean Bight Bay; no.
81280, an adult male from the northeast peninsula, August 6, 1930;
no. 81281, a young female from Northwest Point, August 8, 1930;
and nos. 81282-4, an adult male and two young females from Mathew-
town, August 9-10, 1930. I have likewise examined a fine series of five
males, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 6234 labeled simply “ Inagua’”’. These
are the specimens to which Garman erroneously applied the name
schreibersit.
Variations —In the series of 14 specimens, the canthals and pre-
frontals do not touch in any instance. The supraocular plates vary
from six to eight in number, six being unusual, eight fairly frequent,
and seven the most frequent. There are always three prefrontals, the
second of which is usually the largest. In one case the internasals are
transversely divided. The median snout scales are three to six in
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
number ; when more than three are present, it is usually because one
or more of the original series has longitudinally divided. The first of
the series are usually in contact, but the third is usually separated
from the second by the second prefrontals which are in contact. There
are 70 to 82 dorsal scales between the occiput and the beginning of the
tail, and from 16 to 20 dorsals in the distance from snout to the
occiput. The adpressed hind leg reaches to the center of the eye or to
its anterior corner in adults; in the very young male it reaches nearly
to the nostril. The subdigital lamellae of the fourth toe number from
25 to 29. The tail when perfect is about one and three-quarters times
the length of the head and body.
In coloration the variation between the sexes is at once apparent.
The males have the very distinct square black patches on the shoulder
region, with a sudden diminution in the intensity of these blotches both
dorsally and posteriorly, so that they can hardly be discerned. The
females, on the contrary, lack the black color entirely, the four rows of
quadrangular blotches on back and sides being uniformly sepia, as are
the transverse latero-ventral stripes, which in the males are so hand-
somely edged with scarlet vermilion. The very young male has a
brilliant pattern of black blotches which appears even on the tail as
widely spaced bars; on the middle of the back, however, the blotches
are already beginning to lose their intensity and fade out gradually.
Dr. Noble has given additional notes on color and habits in his recent
paper.
Relationships—From the West Indian islands five species of
Leiocephalus with a lateral fold have been described up to the present
time. They are schreibersii and melanochlorus from Hispaniola,
raviceps and macropus from Cuba, and loxogrammus from Rum Cay
in the Bahamas. The new species from Great Inagua Island makes the
sixth belonging to this group. It is intermediate in the size of its
scales between melanochlorus, the largest-scaled species, and the other
four known species, all of which have rather small scales. In color-
ation it suggests loxogrammus somewhat in the presence of the black
blotches on the sides of the neck, but otherwise the patterns are not
alike. It is true that melanochlorus has four sets of blotches on back
and sides, as does inaguae, but in adult males of the former species
those above the shoulder are not more prominent than those elsewhere
on the body.
The prefrontals of loxogrammus are vastly different from those of
the new species—the prefrontals of loxogrammus being only two in
number, the posterior ones very large and elongate. Practically this
saine arrangement is found in raviceps of Cuba. In macropus of
NO. I HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS——-COCHRAN 39
Cuba, and schreibersii and melanochlorus of Hispaniola, the pre-
frontals, while three in number, are relatively small and uniform in
size and as a rule are completely, or nearly completely, separated by
the median series of scales on the snout. In inaguae, the second pre-
frontals are prominent, fairly large and usually in contact with each
other.
LEIOCEPHALUS MACROPUS Cope
Liocephalus macropus Cope, Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 184.
U.S.N.M. nos. 81671-2 and no. 81674 were collected at Rio Puerco,
Province of Oriente, Cuba, on August 29 and 30, 1930; no. 81680 at
the mouth of the Magdalena River in Oriente on August 29, 1930;
nos. 81681-4 from Punta Icacos, Oriente Province, on August 30,
1930; nos. 81688-9 from Cabo Cruz on August 31, 1930.
LEIOCEPHALUS PSAMMODROMUS Barbour
Leiocephalus psammodromus Barbour, Copeia, vol. 85, p. 73, 1920.
Two series of almost topotypic lizards were collected in the Turks
Island Group—U.S.N.M. nos. 81303-28 from Long Cay, August 1,
1930 and nos. 81329-43 from Sand Cay, August 2, 1930.
Several localities from the neighboring Caicos Group yielded the
following specimens: U.S.N.M. nos. 81384-7 from Fort George Cay
on July 24, 1930; nos. 81388-92 from Stubb Cay, Fort George Group,
on July 25, 1930; nos. 81393-6 from Water Cay, Fort George Group,
on July 24, 1930; nos. 81397-8 from Pine Cay on July 24, 1930; nos.
81399-409 from Long Cay near South Caicos on July 29, 1930; nos.
81410-11 from Lorimer Creek on Grand Caicos on July 26, 1930; no.
81412 from Sugar Loaf Island of the Providentiales Group on August
4, 1930.
On all the cays (Pine Cay, Water Cay, Fort George Cay) we found lizards
and wherever possible secured specimens. There is a ground species that partly
curls its tail, probably a relative of the curled tail lizard.
LEIOCEPHALUS RAVICEPS Cope
Liocephalus raviceps Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 183.
As late as the publication of Barbour’s “ Herpetology of Cuba” in
1919, the scarcity of this species in collections made its distribution in
Cuba a matter of uncertainty. Since that date, however, the species
has been collected rather abundantly, and the following records of it
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
for this particular collection are: U.S.N.M. nos. 81652-3 from the
north side of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, August 14, 1930; nos. 81656-7
from Macola Hill in Guantanamo Province, Cuba, August 15, 1930;
no. 81659 from Cusco Valley in Guantanamo Province, Cuba, August
16, 1930; nos. 81713-4 from Cayo west of Cachiboca, Doce Leguas,
Province of Camagiiey, Cuba, September 8, 1930; and 81812-6 from
Boqueron, Cuba, August 19, 1930.
The examination of the prefrontal scales makes this species rather
easy to tell apart from the other three members of the genus likewise
occurring on Cuba. Leiocephalus raviceps has two prefrontals be-
tween the internasal and the supraorbital semicircle—the anterior
prefrontal small, the posterior considerably enlarged— while the other
Cuban species have three more or less subequal prefrontals.
LEIOCEPHALUS VARIUS Garman
Liocephalus varius Garman, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 24, p. 274, 1887.
U.S.N.M. nos. 81750-3 from Grand Cayman, September 15 and 16,
1930.
TROPIDURUS TORQUATUS HISPIDUS (Spix)
Agama hispida Spix, Spec. Novae Lacert. Bras., p. 12, 1825.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79205-10 from the hill east of Pampater, Margarita
Island, September 8, 1929; no. 79228 from Los Robles, Margarita
Island, same day. The scales of the hands and feet appear to be
elongated into spines to a much greater extent in the Margarita Island
lizards than is the case in Venezuelan representatives, supposedly
of the same subspecies. A very thorough generic revision is necessary
before deciding how much weight can be attached to such a character
in a genus subject to considerable specific variations as to structure
of scales.
TROPIDODACTYLUS ONCA (0’Shaughnessy)
Norops onca O'Shaughnessy, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 4, vol. 15 p. 280, 1875.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79226-7 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, Sep-
tember 8, 1929.
The larger of these two specimens has been compared with the
types in the British Museum by H. W. Parker. He thinks that they are
the same, although he notes that in both type specimens the scales of
the sides are subimbricate and rather more lanceolate than in the
United States National Museum example.
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 41
Family ANGUIDAE
CELESTUS SAGRAEI (Cocteau)
Diploglossus sagrae Cocteau, in R. de la Sagra, Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 180, 1838.
U.S N.M. no. 75840 from Senado, Camagiiey Province, Cuba,
September 2, 1928.
Family TEIIDAE
AMEIVA AQUILINA Garman
Ameiva aquilina Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 10, p. 3, 1887.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79111-2 from Petit Mustique Island, Grenadines,
August 18, 1929; nos. 79147-9 from Frigate Island, Grenadines,
August 22, 1929; nos. 79194-5 from Mineral Springs, northeast
Grenada, August 27, 1929. In their “ Revision of the Lizards of the
Genus Ameiva ” in 1915, Barbour and Noble say regarding this species
that “it is probable that it also occurs in some of the Grenadines ”’.
This prediction is justified by the first two records given above.
Comparative measurements and scale counts of all these specimens,
including three additional Grenada specimens in the national collection,
have been made as follows:
Ventrals Tail Lamel-
U.S. : Head a = Femoral at lae
Ny ae ee ay Trans Longitu pores 15th vane
i ao eee dina | verticil toe
mm Rows Rows Se iw |
Ago mlm Grenada. maces seas - 88 32 10+2 20-20 40 By
43223 Pde etek ake 73 22 MO}q-2 || atti 4I a7,
67234 Rebar Geto ee onary: 62 33 10+2 18-18 41 36
79194 Bey i Maccayeeite re dala: Tif 32 10-2) Sho 38 36
79195 | Has rere ioe tua abo heabs ns2 32 aed Oia 7 41 35
79111 | Petit Mustique Island 138 35 12 19-20 46 36
79112 - 129 AG |) WOarZ 20-21 42 Bi
79147 | Frigate Island....... 139 33 10+2 20-21 43 33
79148 PRN e Perse oS mag 32 10+2 20-21 45 35
79149 ith on fo Oa cet 150 33 10+2 21 44 34
The two adults from Petit Mustique Island show a pattern of
relatively large pale dorsal spots surrounded by a heavy black reticu-
lation, while the adults from Frigate Islands have the pale spots some-
what smaller and more sparsely scattered, and the black pigment is
reduced to a narrow rim around the light spots and to some small
patches between them and along the middle of the back.
Although the number of transverse rows of ventrals was given as
14 by Garman, and this count was later repeated by Barbour and Noble,
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
I find only 10 rows of uniform-sized scales flanked by a row of much
smaller scales at each side in most of the specimens before me.
Dr. Bartsch gives the following note on living coloration of the
Petit Mustique lizards:
Punctations on sides greenish yellow; head, etc., marbled with brown streaks.
Throat gray. Belly bright peacock-blue, most intense on the under side of tail.
Upper side of tail dark, variegated.
AMEIVA AUBERI Cocteau
Ameiva auberi Cocteau, in R. de la Sagra, Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 74, 1838.
Examples of this lizard are U.S.N.M. no. 81654 from the north side
of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, obtained August 14, 1930; nos. 81665-7
from Cusco Valley in the province of Guantanamo, Cuba, August 16,
1930; no. 81678 from Rio Puerco in Oriente, Cuba, August 29, 1930;
no. 81700 from Doce Leguas, cay at longitude 78° 33’ W. on Sep-
tember 7, 1930; nos. 81701-3 from the southeast end of Doce Leguas,
Cuba, on the same date; 81704 from Doce Leguas on September 8,
1930; nos. 81705-6 from Pilot Point on Anclitos Bay, Doce Leguas, on
September 9, 1930; no. 81707 from Caballones, Doce Leguas, on the
same day; nos. 81718-9 from Mathias Cays on September 22, 1930;
no. 81766 from Cayo Avillon near Canapachi on September 21, 1930;
no. 81821 from Boqueron, Cuba, on August 19, 1930.
AMEIVA FUSCATA Garman
Ameiva fuscata Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. 19, p. 5, 1887.
U.S.N.M. no. 79023 from Danes, east of Portsmouth, Dominica,
August 4, 1929; no. 79024 from the Botanic Gardens in Rousseau,
Dominica, August 6, 19209.
AMEIVA MAYNARDII MAYNARDII (Garman)
Ameiva maynardii Garman, Bull. Essex Inst., vol. 20, p. 10, 1888.
Four lizards belonging to this species were taken from August 7
to 10, 1930, on Great Inagua Island,—U.S.N.M. nos. 81271-2 from
Mathewtown, and 81275-6 from Man of War Bay.
The scale formulae for these lizards are very similar. The femoral
pores vary between ro and 14; the subdigital lamellae are 34 to 39;
the tail at the fifteenth verticil has in every case 23 rows of scales ; the
transverse rows of ventrals number 33 to 35, and the longitudinal rows
are 8 in all cases.
NOD 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN 43
AMEIVA MAYNARDII UNIFORMIS Noble and Klingel.
Ameiva maynard uniformis Noble and Klingel, Amer. Mus. Novit. no. 540,
p. 23, 1932.
U.S.N.M. nos. 81373-4 from the center of Ocean Bight Bay, August
7, 1930, are referred to this subspecies. They are a uniform drab-gray
above, slightly bluer on the limbs, and lightening to immaculate pearl-
gray on the under parts. There are absolutely no traces of the three
wide black stripes which characterize Garman’s Ameiva maynardii.
There are 12 femoral pores in both specimens of A. m. uniformis ; sub-
digital lamellae 36; the tail at the 15th verticil with 20 and 22 scales re-
spectively; the transverse rows of ventrals 31 and 35, and the
longitudinal rows 8.
AMEIVA PLEI Duméril and Bibron
Ameiva plei Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 5, p. 114, 1839.
U.S.N.M. nos. 78974-7 from St. Martin, July 22, 1929.
AMEIVA THORACICA Cope
Ameiva thoracica Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 64.
This lizard is represented by examples from the following places:
U.S.N.M. nos. 81451-4 from Flamingo Cays of the Ragged Island
Group, June 25, 1930; no. 81475 from Raccoon Cay of the Ragged
Island Group, June 30, 1930; nos. 81497-8 from Crooked Island, July
14, 1930. The three from Flamingo Cays are much lighter in color-
ation than is the usual case, the black dorsolateral line being barely in
evidence on the posterior part of the body, and not present at all
anteriorly. Since the lizard from the not-far-distant Raccoon Cay
presents an entirely normal style of coloration, and since there seems to
be no urgent reason for describing a subspecies from so few specimens,
which likewise are considerably mutilated by the small shot used to
obtain them, it is best to consider them as aberrant individuals.
SCOLECOSAURUS ALLENI Barbour
Scolecosaurus allen’ Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, p. 315, 1914.
U.S.N.M. no. 79190 from the Annandale Estate, Grenada, August
25, 1929.
CHEMIDOPHORUS MURINUS ARUBENSIS (Lidth de Jeude)
Cnemidophorus arubensis Lidth de Jeude, Notes Leyden Mus., vol. 9, p. 132,
1887.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79323-5, 79327-31 from Aruba Island, September
17, 1929. One of the original series, no. 79326, was sent to the
Museum of Comparative Zoology as an exchange.
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS - VOL. 92
CNEMIDOPHORUS MURINUS MURINUS (Laurenti)
Seps murinus Laurenti, Synops. Rept., p. 63, 1768.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79271-2 from a hill 14 miles west of Kralendijk,
Bonaire Island, September 12; 79273-303 from Bonaire Island, Sep-
tember 13-14, 1929; nos. 79304-14 from Curacao, September 16, 1929.
CNEMIDOPHORUS LEMNISCATUS LEMNISCATUS (Linnaeus)
Lacerta lemniscata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 200, 1758.
U.S.N.M. nos. 79219-23 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, Sep-
tember 8, 1929.
CNEMIDOPHORUS LEMNISCATUS NIGRICOLOR (Peters)
Cnemidophorus nigricolor Peters, Sitz. Ber. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, p. 76,
1873.
U.S.N.M. no. 79230 from Orchilla Island, September 10, 1929; nos.
79232-54 from El Roque, September 11, 1929. Most of the adults of
the latter series are dull black in color, either uniform or with minute
white dots.
The low trailing shrubbery on the beach south of the village [on the leeward
side of El Roque Island] had many lizards of two kinds, or probably three:
one sooty, one plain brownish, and one spotted. These, when followed, would
dive in the crab burrows for shelter and thus elude the pursuer.
Family AMPHISBAENIDAE
AMPHISBAENA CUBANA Peters
Amphisbaena cubana Peters, Mon. Berlin Acad. Wiss., p. 780, 1878.
U.S.N.M. no. 75861 from Santa Cruz Mountains in Camagtiey
Province, Cuba, September 1, 1928.
Family SCINCIDAE
MABUYA AENEA (Gray)
Tiliqua aenea Gray, Griffth’s Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, vol. 9, Synops. Rept.,
p. 70, 1831.
U.S.N.M. no. 79131, from Petit Martinique, Grenadines, August
21, 1929. This handsome specimen has the supranasals separated, 28
scale rows, and 54 scales from vent to chin.
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—COCHRAN AS
MABUYA SLOANII (Daudin)
Scincus sloanet Daudin, Hist. Nat. Rept., vol. 4, p. 287, 1803.
A much mutilated lizard, U.S.N.M. no. 81448, apparently of this
species was taken on West Caicos on August 4, 1930. Its coloration is
much like that of the type of nitida from San Domingo described by
Garman. The supranasals in nitida are barely in contact ; in the lizard
from West Caicos they are slightly separated; in the Puerto Rican
examples of sloanii they are very broadly in contact. In the Puerto
Rican and Hispaniolan forms the first supraocular is very minute,
while the second is very large indeed. The specimen from West Caicos,
although badly damaged about the head, nevertheless shows a fairly
large first supraocular and a correspondingly reduced second supra-
ocular. In this specimen one pair of enlarged nuchal scales is present,
with a trace of a second pair in some fused scales on one side of the
neck. With so little material from Hispaniola, and with this single
injured specimen from the Bahamas, it is best to let the name Mabuya
sloanti cover these forms until more material has given a conclusive
decision about their status.
Suborder SerPeNTEs
Family BOIDAE
EPICRATES ANGULIFER Bibron
Epicrates angulifer Bibron in R. de la Sagra’s Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 215, 1843.
U.S.N.M. no. 75865, a shed skin of a snake of this species, was found
at La Caridad de Mendoza, Senado, Camagtiey Province, Cuba, on
September 2, 1928.
BOA HORTULANA COOKII (Gray)
Corallus cookit Gray, Zool. Misc., p. 42, 1842.
For the two specimens, U.S.N.M. nos. 79097-8 from Quatres Island,
Grenadines, taken August 17, 1929, I adopt the name proposed by
Amaral (Mem. Inst. Butantan, vol. 4, p. 143, 1929). A careful
inspection of scale counts of 29 West Indian examples of Boa appears
to establish the fact that the number of scale rows in this region lies
between 39 and 47, with over half of the specimens having either 41
or 43 scale rows. Those from the mainland appear to fall into two
groups, one having 43 to 47 scale rows, the other 51 to 55. These two
groups are found in separate geographical ranges, the first group
occurring in Venezuela, British Guiana and Colombia, the second in
Surinam, Brazil and Peru. As an intergrading probably occurs where
the ranges come together in the Guianas, subspecific names are desir-
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
able for both forms. The name of the northern mainland form appears
to be applicable to the island species as well, since they do not seem to
be separable by any valid characteristic. No. 79097, a male, has 39
scale rows, 260 ventrals, and 107 subcaudals ; no. 79098, a half-grown
specimen, has 39 scale rows, 258 ventrals, and 108 subcaudals.
.... The surprise, however, came when Pasqual came to me in consterna-
tion, saying that he had seen a snake, so I hastened to the place and sure
enough there was a slender black snake [see Drymobius boddaertti, U.S.N.M.
no. 79099]. Later I asked Pasqual to get me an orchid in a large tree some
distance above ground, and he almost fell off when he discovered another snake
in the bunch of orchids. I could scarcely believe him, but handing him a stick
had him poke it out and sure enough a slender, beautifully colored animal slipped
out and sped along the branch. My .22 game-getter stopped him, but his tail
was wound so tightly about a small limb that we had considerable trouble
unwinding it. This species is evidently a splendid climber. Not 10 minutes
later Pasqual, peeping into a broken-off limb hollowed out by decay, came near
a second tumble as he bounced back with an “Ave Maria—una utra calebra.”
He again poked him out and a shot from the .22 also dropped him, I hope we
have a pair.
TROPIDOPHIS MACULATUS MACULATUS (Bibron)
Leionotus maculatus Bibron, in R. de la Sagra’s Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 212, 1840.
U.S.N.M. no. 75826 from La Sierra, north of Vega Alta, Santa
Clara Province, August 14, 1928.
TROPIDOPHIS MELANURUS (Schlegel)
Boa melanura Schlegel, Ess. Phys. Serp., vol. 2, p. 399, 1837.
U.S.N.M. no. 75828 from El Rinconada, Sierra Camagua, Cuba,
August 27, 1928; no. 75839 from the Cubitas Mountains near Senado,
Cuba, September 5, 1928; no. 76879 from Central Senado, Camaguey
Province, Cuba, September 6, 1928.
TROPIDOPHIS PARDALIS PARDALIS (Gundlach)
Boa pardalis (part) Gundlach, Arch. Naturg., 1840, p. 359.
A young snake attributed to this species is now U.S.N.M. no. 81536,
from Double Headed Shot Cay of the Cay Sal Group taken on June
20, 1930. There are 23 scales around the middle of the body, 157
ventrals, a single anal, and 32 subcaudals.
Family COLUBRIDAE
TRETANORHINUS VARIABILIS Duméril and Bibron
Tretanorhinus variabilis Duméril and Bibron, Erpét. Gén., vol. 7, p. 340, 1854.
U.S.N.M. no. 75807 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio
Province, Cuba, June 21, 1928.
NO. 7 HERPETOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS—-COCHRAN 47
DRYMOBIUS BODDAERTII BODDAERTII (Sentzen)
Coluber boddaertii Sentzen, Meyer’s Zool. Arch., vol. 2, p. 50, 1796.
U.S.N.M. no. 79225 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, September
8, 1929, has 17 scale rows, 181 ventrals, a divided anal, 82 subcaudals,
g supralabials, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 2+4 2.
DRYMOBIUS BODDAERTII BRUESI (Barbour)
Alsophis bruesi Barbour, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 44, no. 2, p. 337, 1914.
U.S.N.M. no. 79099, a female from Quatres Island, Grenadines,
August 17, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 201, anal divided, caudals 125,
supralabials 8, oculars 1+ 2, temporals I + 2.
U.S.N.M. no. 79166, a male from Union Island, Grenadines, August
20, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 201, anal divided, caudals 125+tip,
supralabials 9, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 1+4.
U.S.N.M. no. 79161, a male from Caille Island, Grenadines, August
24, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 197, anal divided, caudals 128, supra-
labials 9, oculars 1+2; temporals 1+ 2.
U.S.N.M. no. 79191, a female from the Annandale Estate, Gren-
ada, August 25, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 199, anal divided, caudals 115,
supralabials 9, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 1 +2.
U.S.N.M. no. 79193, a female from Baltazar, near the east coast of
Grenada, August 25, 1929; scales 17, ventrals 204, anal divided, caudals
122, supralabials 9, oculars 1+ 2, temporals 142.
This species, when found on the mainland, ordinarily has two
anterior temporals, and Barbour’s original series of Alsophis bruesi
from near St. George’s, Grenada, had “a large anterior temporal
with almost always a small scale intercalated above it, anteriorly eeilta
all of the National Museum specimens listed above—three of them
from the Grenadines and two from Grenada—there is but one anterior
temporal, and the intercalated small scale is lacking in every instance.
ALSOPHIS ANGULIFER Bibron
Alsophis angulifer Bibron, in R. de la Sagra’s Hist. Cuba, Rept., p. 222, 1840.
U.S.N.M. no. 75830 from El Salto de la Tinaga, Camagtiey Prov-
ince, Cuba, August 28, 1928.
ALSOPHIS VUDII Cope
Alsophis vudii Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 74.
On Flamingo Cays of the Ragged Island Group a snake of this
species was collected on June 27, 1930, U.S.N.M. no. 81464. It has
17 scale rows, 164 ventrals, a divided anal, 128 caudals, 8 upper labials,
oculars 1+2, temporals 1+3. It seems to be a normal individual in
every way.
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2
LEIMADOPHIS ANDREAE Reinhardt and Liitken
Leimadophis andreae Reinhardt and Litken, Vid. Med. Nat. For. Kjobenhavn,
p. 214, 1862, (1863).
U.S.N.M. no. 75808 from Bafios San Vicente, Pinar del Rio Prov-
ince, Cuba, June 1, 1928; no. 75809 from Puerta del Ancon, Pinar del
Rio Province, Cuba, June 29, 1928; no. 75827 from Macomento del
Rio, Cuba, August 7, 1928 ; nos. 75844-5 from Rio San Juan, Pinar del
Rio Province, Cuba, June 9, 1928.
LEIMADOPHIS JULIAE (Cope)
Aporophis juliae Cope, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. 18, p. 274, 1879.
A young individual, U.S.N.M. no. 79022 from Danes, east of Ports-
mouth, Dominica, August 4, 1929. Its scale formula is: Scales 17,
ventrals 156, anal divided, caudals 82, supralabials 8, oculars 1+ 2,
temporals 1+4.
A female, no. 79025 from the Botanic Gardens in Rousseau,
Dominica, August 6, 1929, has the following scale count: Scales 17,
ventrals 159, anal divided, caudals 78, supralabials 8, oculars I + 2,
temporals 1+ 2.
RHINOSTOMA GUIANENSE (Troschel)
Heterodon guianensis Troschel in Schomb. Reise Brit. Guiana, vol. 3, p. 653,
1848.
U.S.N.M. no. 79224 from Los Robles, Margarita Island, September
8, 1929. This appears to be the first insular record for this species.
The specimen in hand has 19 scale rows ; 191 ventrals ; anal undivided ;
subcaudals 51+, the tail tip being defective ; temporals 2+ 3.
Subclass SYNAPSIDA
Order TESTUDINATA
Family TESTUDINIDAE
TESTUDO TABULATA Walbaum
Testudo tabulata Walbaum, Chelonogr., p. 122, 1782.
Unfortunately no example of this species reached the United States
National Museum. As to its occurrence on two of the Grenadines, I
quote the field notes made by Dr. Bartsch:
Aug. 17,1929. Quatres Id., off Cheltenham. .... On returning, the pilot told
us that there were land tortoises here and an enquiry brought three to me on our
return, large clumsy beasts, for which I paid 50 cents..... Aug. 18, 1920.
West side of Baliceaux Id..... I was greatly surprised to find here many
of the land tortoises. I turned over half a dozen large ones, hoping to find them
upon our downward trip, but we didn’t. They had righted themselves and taken
shelter in the grass tufts or shrubbery. As it was, we carried five aboard.
wn
Pie
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 8
Santoro MERPON T LANGLEY
(WiTH Six PLATEs)
BY
C. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3281)
GITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
AUGUST 22, 1934
The Lord Waltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U, 8 A.
SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY
By C. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(WitTH S1x PLateEs)
August 22, 1934, marks the centenary of the birth of the third
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Samuel Pierpont Langley
was born at Roxbury, near Boston, Massachusetts, August 22, 1834,
and died at Washington, February 27, 1906. After his graduation
from the Boston High School in 1851, he studied and practiced civil
engineering and architecture until 1864. Then he traveled extensively
in Europe, frequently visiting observatories and learned societies there.
He and his brother, afterward Prof. John W. Langley, had long been
ardent amateur astronomers, and being of mechanical tastes, they
had constructed a small reflecting telescope. Returning from his
European trip, the future Secretary devoted himself to astronomy.
After a short assistantship at Harvard College Observatory and a very
brief tenure as assistant professor of mathematics and director of the
observatory at the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Md., he was in 1866
appointed director of the Allegheny Observatory, near Pittsburgh,
and professor of physics in the Western University of Pennsylvania.
He remained there for more than 20 years, during which his remark-
able pioneering astronomical work along several different lines gave
him a foremost standing in astronomy, along with that triumvirate of
distinguished American astronomers of those days, Simon Newcomb,
Edward C. Pickering, and Charles E. Young. He raised considerable
revenue for the Allegheny Observatory by the then novel device of
furnishing astronomical time to the Pennsylvania Railroad. The
wealthy Pittsburgh philanthropist, William Thaw, was his helpful
friend. By Langley’s encouraging advice, John A. Brashear, a steel
worker, was transformed from a timid amateur mirror-grinder to
the founder of that great optical concern, the John A. Brashear
Optical Company, of Allegheny, Pa., and was ever his grateful
friend and helper in preparing novel apparatus for his pioneering
experiments.
Owing to the failing health of the distinguished naturalist, Spen-
cer F. Baird, second Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Langley
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 8
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
was appointed Assistant Secretary in 1887. After Baird’s death, he
was elected by the Board of Regents to be Secretary on November 18,
1887. He retained this position until his death, February 27, 1906.
During his tenure, Secretary Langley founded the Astrophysical Ob-
servatory, the National Zoological Park, the Regional Bureau for the
United States of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature,
and the National Gallery of Art. He broke ground for the beautiful
Natural History Building of the National Museum. His strong inter-
est in children led him to set aside and beautify a special room for
them in the Smithsonian Building, where the choicest specimens in
zoology and geology were assembled to rouse their admiration and
wonder. Several bequests came to the endowment of the Institution,
notably the Hodgkins Fund for the study of atmospheric air. By
annual journeys to Europe, Langley kept the Institution prominently
before the eyes of Old World scientists and kept them informed at
first hand of his notable researches in astrophysics and aviation.
Langley was a man of varied and discriminating tastes in art
and literature. As an author he showed great clarity of expression and
delightful rhythm and choice in words. He could never satisfy his
fastidious taste in composition, but continually altered and polished
his writings up to the very last stage. Only in bound form could they
elude his further alterations. Having a generous sense of humor, he
found a special pleasure in reading the works of George Borrow. The
novelist, William Dean Howells, was a valued friend, from whom he
even took lessons in composition, so much did Langley admire the
polished style of Howells’ writing.
Though unmarried, Langley was a great favorite with children.
T have seen him at the resort, Marshall Hall, swinging with two little
girls, one on either knee, While he told them fairy stories. He was
afflicted by great shyness, and like some others thus handicapped, he
carried for the outer world a shell of hauteur, very unrepresentative
of the warm heart within. A man of great accomplishment himself,
he was often unfairly impatient with assistants, and would betray
irascibility by unduly raising his voice when things did not get on to
suit him. For these reasons many failed to understand the innate
kindliness of the man, so well known to those in closest association
with him.
The older men of the Smithsonian Institution still remember many
incidents illustrative of Langley’s character that would make delight-
ful reading if they could be written without loss of flavor. He often
told witty stories, or used bon mots to impress indelibly some point in
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 3
conversation. He was fond, for instance, of the expressions: “ Let
sleeping dogs lie”’; “‘ The written word remains ” ; “ What has pos-
terity done for us that we should care so much for the opinion of
posterity? ’’ One day when he was going to some function he came
hurriedly out of his room and said “ William, my hat.” The colored
man ran and got his derby. “I said a HAT!” shouted Langley, as
he threw the derby down the hall. He used always to have a messenger
boy accompany him when he walked to outlying offices. As befitted
his chief’s dignity, the boy always walked two paces behind, perhaps
carrying an overcoat or a portfolio. In his youthful exuberance, and
especially if some crony was looking on, the boy might cut some
slightly disrespectful capers. But if so, he reckoned without his
chief’s knowledge of optics. For observing the boy indistinctly by
reflection from the rear of his glasses, Langley would turn around
suddenly at a critical moment, to the boy’s great discomfiture. These
little idiosyncrasies were a spice to us at the time, and endear the
memory of our great chief as we look back over more than a quarter
century.
In the remainder of this memoir I propose to let Langley tell in his
own words of some of his leading pioneer investigations. A list of
the exact references to these articles will be found at the end of this
paper.
“ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR PHOTOSPHERE”
‘“ Before we turn with these aids to the study of the photosphere,
it will be well to describe briefly appearances presented by the solar
surface in telescopes of moderate size.
“Here we see a disk of nearly uniform brightness, which is yet
sensibly darker near the circumference than at the center. Usually
seen relieved against this gray and near the edges, are elongated and
irregular white patches (faculae), and at certain epochs trains of spots
are scattered across the disk in two principal zones equidistant from
the solar equator. On attentive examination it is further seen that
the surface of the sun everywhere—even near the center and where
commonly neither faculae nor spots are visible—is not absolutely
uniform, but is made up of fleecy clouds, whose outlines are all but
indistinguishable. The appearance of snow flakes which have fallen
sparsely upon a white cloth, partly renders the impression, but no
strictly adequate comparison can perhaps be found, as under more
painstaking scrutiny, we discern numerous faint dots on the white
ground, which seem to aid in producing the impression of a moss-
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
like structure in the clouds, still more delicate, and whose faint intri-
cate outlines tease the eye, which can neither definitely follow them,
nor analyze the source of its impression of their existence.
‘These appearances have been mentioned, lest they should be con-
founded in any way with the far minuter structure now to be
described.
“Under high powers used in favorable moments, the surface of any
one of the fleecy patches is resolved into a congeries of small, intensely
bright bodies, irregularly distributed, which seem to be suspended in a
comparatively dark medium, and whose definiteness of size and out-
line, although not absolute, is yet striking by contrast with the vague-
ness of the cloud-forms seen before, and which we now perceive to be
due to their aggregation. The ‘dots’ seen before are considerable
openings caused by the absence of the white nodules at certain points,
and the consequent exposure of the gray medium which forms the
general background. These openings have been called pores; their
variety of size makes any measurements nearly valueless, though we
may estimate in a very rough way the diameter of the more conspicu-
ous at from 2” to 4”. The bright nodules are themselves not uni-
formly bright (some being notably more brilliant than their fellows
and even unequally bright in portions, of the same nodule), neither
are they uniform in shape. They have just been spoken of as rela-
tively definite in outline, but this outline is commonly found to be
irregular on minute study, while it yet affects, as a whole, an elongated
or oval contour. Mr. Stone has called them rice-grains, a term only
descriptive of their appearance with an aperture of three to four
inches, but which I will use provisionally. It depicts their whiteness,
their relative individuality, and their approximate form, but not their
irregular outline, nor a certain tendency to foliate structure which is
characteristic of them, and which has not been sufficiently remarked
upon. This irregularity and diversity of outline have been already
observed by Mr. Huggins. Estimates of the mean size of these bodies
vary very widely. Probably Mr. Huggins has taken a judicious mean
in averaging their longer diameter at 1”.5, and their shorter at 1”,
while remarking that they are occasionally between 2” and 3” and
sometimes less than 1” in length. ....
“Tn moments of rarest definition I have resolved these ‘ rice-
grains’ into minuter components, sensibly round, which are seen
singly as points of light, and whose aggregation produces the ‘ rice-
grain’ structure. These minutest bodies, which I will call granules,’
1 As this word is already in use, with another meaning, attention should be
given to the restricted and definite significance which is here assigned to it.
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 5
it will appear subsequently can hardy equal 0”.3 in diameter, and
are probably less. (Secchi is the only observer, as far as I know, who
appears to have seen and measured them. He observed them in the
edges of the pores, and reckons their size at ”.4 to "4, but does not
estimate their number or point out their relations to the ‘ rice-grains.’ )
They are irregularly distributed, with a tendency to aggregation in
little clusters (the clusters being the rice-grains), and their existence
accounts for the diversity and irregularity in the outline of the latter,
Mr. Huggins has acutely remarked upon, while it of course makes
clear the reason of the apparent increase in the number of ‘ rice-
grains ’ with increasing telescopic power.
‘We are now prepared to study the minute structure of the photo-
sphere under another aspect, as it appears in the spots. It is impos-
sible to make such a drawing as that here given from any single de-
lineation, owing to the rapidity with which spots change their form.
I have accordingly, while taking the general contour and many details
from drawings of the great spot of March 5 and 6, 1873, added the
results of numerous studies of detail in other spots, made during the
past two years.....
“To represent the gradations of light from the intensest splendor
to the darkness of the nuclei, we have here only the limited range
between a white and a black pigment. This almost compels partial
falsity in the degrees of shade, and there is, for instance, in the draw-
ing, a relative exaggeration of the shade which marks the outer
boundary of the penumbra, and without which the important details
- would be hardly visible.
“Tt is practically impossible, in the brief intervals of perfect defint-
tion during which such work can be carried on, to so multiply mi-
crometric measurements, that from their concordance any idea of
their probable error is obtainable by the usual treatment. Measure-
ments taken at different times, and on different parts of the penumbra,
by counting the number of filaments in a given space, give from
o”.7 to 1”.0 as the average distance from center to center of parallel
filaments separated by scarcely measurable intervals ; at the same time
that the distance in some parts is greater, it is in others much less.
“ Solar cyclones, which, even without the aid of the spectroscope,
we see are incomparably more violent than our own tropical tornados,
act on the filaments without destroying their identity. It is probable
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
that both the filaments and the granules I have so minutely described,
may hereafter be resolved into smaller components still, but their per-
sistent individuality as a whole under such disturbance, impresses me
as a most striking feature, and one for which, under similar circum-
stances, we have no exact analogy in our own meteorology.
“Are these round, nearly central openings, so that looking into one
we are looking into the axis of the cyclone to which the spot is due—
into the vortex of the great whirl down which the chromospheric
vapors are being sucked by mechanical action? Are they ragged aper-
tures—the craters as it were of eruptions whence metallic vapors are
being forced up? The answer to this question, were there but these
two alternatives, would be definitive as to our choice between the prin-
cipal theories of solar circulation.”
Dr. George E. Hale has told me that the better he perceives by
photography or vision with the great outfits at Pasadena and Mount
Wilson the features of sun spots and the photosphere, the more do
they approach Langley’s drawings and descriptions of them. It is
interesting to add that photography has plainly shown that high-lying
solar clouds of matter are indeed sucked into the umbrae of sun spots
just as Langley suggested.
* THE TOTAL “SOLAR: -ECLIPSE (OF SJULY 229 e878:
OBSERVATIONS AT PIKE’S PEAK, COLORADO”
“Upon the 22d Prof. John W. Langley arrived, and, as the rain
poured freely through the roof upon the boxes which lay in the wet,
as the best means of protecting the telescope, we mounted it in the
open air on a partly level spot of a few feet square some yards from
the hut. Procuring some lard from the kitchen, I covered every part
of the steel-work with it, and wrapped the.instrument in a piece of
canvas. Upon the 23d Prof. Cleveland Abbe, of the Signal Service,
arrived, and on the same evening two tents were pitched, which had
been sent by the order of General Myer. There was no piece of level
ground or rock large enough to lie upon; but we procured some logs
which had been brought up for fire-wood, and, laying these between
the bowlders, spread on them a sack of hay for each, and blankets
which had been brought up in the rain; these were all damp, and our
first night under canvas in a cold and high wind was not agreeable,
particularly as the difficulty of breathing decidedly increased rather
than diminished. In the morning all of the party were ill. The day
was passed in fruitless attempts to adjust the equatorial. In the morn-
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no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 7
ing the canvas which covered it was frozen and loaded with hail. A
little later the sun shone out suddenly and with surprising warmth,
turning the hail to water. I commenced unwrapping the canvas, and
was lifting it off, when the sun disappeared as suddenly as it came
out, and, before I could put the cover on again, it was hailing once
more, and we were involved in dense cloud. This cloud was continu-
ous, except for several brief moments of sunshine, during which I
uncovered the instrument several times to no purpose. I may say
briefly that this was nearly the history of the weather for the ensuing
week, during which we had several clear sunrises and sunsets, but in
the course of which neither Professor Abbe nor myself got so much
as the requisite observations for adjusting our equatorials, which re-
mained on the day of the eclipse in the position in which they were
first set up. During the first days, our illness increased, and, with a
great difficulty of breathing and greatly increased action of the heart,
we felt constant and severe headache, and nearly every symptom
which attends sea-sickness. Exertion was extremely difficult, and that
of building the stone piers for the heliostat, photometer, and other
instruments for which we had at first no assistance, was carried on
only by a very strong effort of will as well as of strength.
“Not to enlarge on the personal discomforts of a week which we
all had reason to wish over, I may add that towards its close Pro-
fessor Abbe’s condition gave us cause for alarm. His symptoms were
the same as my brother’s and my own, but much aggravated, and while
we grew rather better, he grew worse, and upon Sunday morning he
was unable to rise. At this time the tents were not the place for an
invalid. The snow, which had blown into one during the night and
spread thickly over one of the sleepers, I remember finding ten inches
deep beside me when I woke. Professor Abbe’s own resolution to stay,
if possible, was unaltered; but one of our party, a physician, pro-
nouncing his life endangered by another day, he was, on the evening
of the 28th, put into a litter and carried down to a lower altitude,
where his recovery was rapid.
“ The morning of the 29th was clear, and the whole of the impor-
tant day was a complete contrast to its predecessors, the sky being
almost cloudless and of a deep and transparent blue never seen near
the Atlantic coast... ..
“I pass over phenomena preceding totality, observed by myself, as
of little value, with a reference to the letters of Messrs. Shields and
Manning, given below. At the moment of totality I removed the dark
glass.
2
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
“As original records of an observation are trustworthy in propor-
tion as they have been presented in their first crude state, I endeavor
to give the impressions as they rose in my mind, and will comment on
them later. My first impression, then, of the corona was, ‘It is not
so bright as those I have seen before’; my second, * but it is far
more extended.’ I had before me a sheet of drawing-paper with a
8-inch circle on it to represent the sun, and on this I traced an out-
line (Plate 3, Fig. 1) of what I then saw, before the eye had recov-
ered its sensibility. The sun was surrounded by a narrow ring—
hardly more than a line—of vivid light, presenting to the naked eye
no trace of structure ; which faded with great suddenness into a nebu-
lous luminosity that at first appeared to extend to a distance of about
two and one-half solar diameters all around. ... .
“There were but a few moments left when I turned to the telescope.
It happened to be directed toward the northern part of the sun. I
adjusted the eye-piece for distinct vision, which appeared excellent,
but the view after this lasted, I think, not more than four or five
seconds before totality was over. What I saw thus momentarily was
not in the least what I expected. If there were any structure in the
very inner corona, it had escaped me when I had searched for it in
a previous eclipse (Jeres, in 1870). It is true that the sky was hazy
on that occasion, and that on this it was exquisitely clear. Now what
I saw in this brief view was a surprisingly definite filamentary struc-
ture * somewhat coarser and decidedly more sharply defined than I
have ever seen filaments in the photosphere, not disposed radially, or
only so in the rudest sense, sharpest and much the brightest close to
the disc, fading rapidly away into invisibility at a distance of five
minutes of arc or more (possibly in some cases of ten). The salient
point to me was this very remarkable definiteness and precision of
these forms, and this impression, made on my mind in that too brief
moment, is reproduced in this sketch (Plate 3, Fig. 3), taken from
one made within ten minutes of the event. It is in no way a ‘ picture’
but a reproduction of the original memorandum of the first impres-
* The action which produces these definite forms goes on over the surface of a
sphere, in reality, and not a disc, and they are doubtless presented to us under
all possible foreshortenings, and, questionless, lie one behind and across another,
so that, a priori one would expect they would obscure one another, and that such
definiteness would not, in fact, exist. But, to me, the actual appearance was very
much like that which we might have if the sun were not a globe at all, but a flat
disc, fringed with such threads. Doubtless, there was really an intricate cross-
hatching of them, and various obscurer forms might have been made out with
time for study.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE. 92, NO. 8, PEs
TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE, JULY 29TH, 1878, PIKE’S PEAK, COLORADO
Drawings by S. P. Langley
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 9
sion of the features of the (telescopic) inner corona, which were,
to repeat: (1) Extraordinary sharpness of filamentary structure ;
(2) arrangement not radial, or only so in the rudest sense; (3) gen-
erally curved, not straight lines; (4) curved in different directions ;
(5) very bright close to the edge, and fading very rapidly—fading out
wholly at from 5 to 10 minutes from it.”
“THE BOLOMETER AND RADIANT ENERGY”
“ Our knowledge of the distribution of heat in the solar spectrum
really begins with this century and the elder Herschel, . . .
“ No one, so far as I know, has hitherto succeeded in measuring the
heat from a diffraction grating except in the gross, . .
“ T have tried at intervals for the past four years to do this, and
having long familiarity with the many precautions to be used in deli-
cate measures with the thermopile, and a variety of specially sensitive
piles, had flattered myself with the hope of succeeding better than my
predecessors. I found, however, that though I got results, they were
too obscure to be of any great value, and that science possessed no
instrument which could deal successfully with quantities of radiant
heat so minute.
‘“‘T have entered into these preliminary remarks as an explanation
of the necessity for such an instrument as that which I have called
the Bolometer (BoaAn, perpov), or Actinic Balance, to the cost of whose
experimental construction I have meant to devote the sum the Rum-
ford Committee did me the honor of proposing that the Academy
should appropriate.
‘“Tmpelled by the pressure of this actual necessity, I therefore tried
to invent something more sensitive than the thermopile, which should
be at the same time equally accurate—which should, I mean, be es-
sentially a ‘ meter’ and not a mere indicator of the presence of feeble
radiation. This distinction is a radical one. It is not difficult to make
an instrument far more sensitive to radiation than the present, if it
is for use as an indicator only; but what the physicist wants, and
what I have consumed nearly a year of experiment in trying to supply,
is something more than an indicator—a measurer of radiant energy.
“ The earliest design was to have two strips of thin metal, vir-
tually forming arms of a Wheatstone’s Bridge, placed side by side in
as nearly as possible identical conditions as to environment, of which
one could be exposed at pleasure to the source of radiation. As it was
warmed by this radiation and its electric resistance proportionally
increased over that of the other, this increased resistance to the flow
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
of the current from a battery would be measured (by the disturbance
of the equality of the ‘ bridge’ currents) by means of a galvanometer.
“This promptness in the action of the metal strip gives it a great
advantage over the thermopile for measures of precision. But, beside
this, the deflection produced by the single strip and bridge is greater
than that from the thermopile, if the element of time enter into the
comparison, and still more if the relative areas exposed to radiation be
considered.
“Although (for the reasons just cited) far from as sensitive as we
can make it, such a strip then is yet more sensitive than the pile. A
number of thermopiles, selected as the most sensitive in the writer’s
collection, have been exposed to the same source of radiation, placed
at the same distance as in the previous experiments. They were
. as follows:
“A. Large thermopile, by Elliott (Tyndall-lecture pattern), com-
posed of sixty-three couples, ....
“B. Very sensitive thermopile of extra small elements (16
couples) ¥2 295,
“C. Delicate linear thermopile (7 couples). Working face about
I mm. by 10 mm. =10 sq. mm
“S. The iron strip, which was about 7 mm. by .176 mm. and whose
working face was therefore about I sq. mm.... .
“ The time of exposure was about five seconds for the thermopiles
and about one-half this for the strip, the latter time corresponding to
the rapid swing of the (designedly) insensitive galvanometer.
“Tn the table, the first column gives the name of instrument; the
second, the cross-section of the beam of radiant heat which is received
upon it; the third is the actual deflection in galvanometer divisions ;
and the fourth the deflection for each square millimetre of exposed
SUrlaCes che. 4.
Area Deflection
Instrument sq. mm. div. Sensitiveness
Pe retention 240 211 Oo
Bie reich eter ete 34 125 E77,
Ci ae kere 10 147 14.7
STR aetececastereire resaaeheie rele I 204 204.0
“After nearly a year’s labor (I began these researches systemati-
cally in December 1879), I have procured a trustworthy instrument.
It aims, as will have been inferred from the preceding remarks, to use
the radiant energy, not to develop force directly as in the case of the
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 11
pile, but indirectly, by causing the feeble energy of the ray to modulate
the distribution of power from a practically unlimited source.
“To do this I roll*® steel, platinum, or palladium into sheets of
from 1/100 to 1/500 of a millimetre thickness ; cut from these sheets
strips one millimetre wide and one centimetre long, or less ; and unite
these strips so that the current from a battery of one or more Daniell’s
cells passes through them. The strips are in two systems, arranged
somewhat like a grating; and the current divides, one half passing
through each, each being virtually one of the arms of a Wheatstone’s
Bridge. The needle of a delicate galvanometer remains motionless
when the two currents are equal. But when radiant heat (energy )
falls on one of the systems of strips, and not on the other, the cur-
rent passing through the first is diminished by the increased resis-
tance; and, the other current remaining unaltered, the needle is
deflected by a force due to the battery directly, and mediately to the
feeble radiant heat, which, by warming the strips by so little as
1/10o00 of a degree Centigrade, is found to produce a measurable
deflection. A change in their temperature of I/100000 degree can, I
believe, be thus noted; and it is evident that from the excessive thin-
ness of the strips (in English measure from 1/2000 to 1/12500 inches
thick) they take up and part with the heat almost instantly. The
instrument is thus far more prompt than the thermopile; and it is
also, I believe, more accurate, as under favorable circumstances the
probable error of a single measure with it is less than one percent.
When the galvanometer is adjusted to extreme instability, the prob-
able error of course is larger; but I have repeated a number of
Melloni’s measurements with the former result.
“T call the instrument provisionally the ‘ Bolometer,’ or ‘Actinic
Balance,’ because it measures radiations and acts by the method of
the ‘ bridge’ or ‘balance,’ there being always two arms, usually in
juxtaposition, and exposed alike to every similar change of tempera-
ture arising from surrounding objects, air-currents, etc., so that the
needle is (in theory at least) only affected when radiant heat, from
which one balance-arm is shielded, falls on the other.
“The first measures, on nearly homogeneous rays in the diffrac-
tion (reflection) spectrum, ever taken by any one that I know of, were
* Experiments are now in progress with still thinner films of metal produced
by electrical or by chemical deposition. I have had the good fortune in experi-
ments now making in this direction, to secure the aid of Professor A. W.
Wright of Yale College, and of Mr. Outerbridge of the United States Mint at
Philadelphia.
12 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
taken by this instrument on Oct. 7, 1880, used with an extremely
delicate reflecting galvanometer by Elliot, of about 20 ohms resistance
and a reflecting grating on speculum metal by Mr. Rutherford of 681 °
lines to the millimetre. Measures have been taken every fair day since,
the source of energy being the sun.
.... The ‘ Balance’ then, whose acting face is only about 1/30
the length of the visible spectrum, and less than 1/1oo the length
within which energy is found in a degree sufficient for it to measure,
receives nearly homogeneous rays (which have passed through no
absorbing medium whatever except the solar and terrestrial atmos-
pheres), and this extremely minute amount of heat is found to give a
galvanometer deflection of some hundred divisions, where thermo-
piles have hitherto failed to register any (on homogeneous rays).
“". . . They are hitherto unpublished, and they at least, though as
yet approximate, show that the heat maximum in a normal spectrum
is not im the ultra-red, but is at least as far up the spectrum as the
orange near D; and this result may be relied on, any smaller values
below A=.0007, as well as all favorable atmospheric circumstances
(high sun, blue sky, etc.), rather tending to move it toward the
violet.”
“ON THE AMOUNT OF THE ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION ”
‘Let us first suppose the radiation of the heavenly body to be
really composed before absorption of two portions, A and B. Let A
have a special coefficient of transmission (a), and B another, special
to itself (b). Then, if we assume (still for considerations of con-
venience only) that each of these portions, is, separately considered,
homogeneous, we may write down the results in the form of two geo-
metrical progressions, thus:
TABLE I
Radiation
received
after
ne absorption By four
Original by one By two By three strata,
radiation Ratio stratum strata strata etc.
A a Aa Aad Aad Aa*
B b Bb Bb? Bb Bb*
A+B Aa + Bb Ad@ + BB? Aa’ + Bb? Aa* + Bb*
= (M) =(N) = (O) = (P)
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 13
“ Then will
Aa+ Bb Aa?+Bb2 . Aa?+Bb? ~ Aat+Bb*
ASB Aa+ Bb Aa?+ Bb? ~ Aa*?+Bb°
and
<<aete:
Aa’ + Bb? (ee a,
~Aa+ Bb Aa+Bb Aa+ Bb
“ The fractions here are the coefficients of transmission, as deduced
from observations at different zenith distances. They evidently differ,
and (as will be shown) each is larger than the preceding.
“Tn the above Aa+Bb is the sum of the two kinds of radiation
as observed after absorption by one unit stratum (sec.€=1) by the
photometer, or actinometer; Aa®+ Bb? is the sum of the radiations
observed after absorption by two strata (sec.¢=2) etc.; but we are
here supposed to independently know the really dual constitution of
the radiation, which the photometer or actinometer does not discern.
According to the usual hypothesis, the coefficient of transmission,
which is the quotient obtained by dividing the value after n absorptions
by that after n—1 absorptions, or more generally that from the
expression
shal
( Value after » absorptions iene
Value after m absorptions
is a constant. It is in fact not a constant, as we shall prove later ; but
we shall first show that, if we proceed upon the ordinary assumption,
the value obtained for the original light of the star before absorption
will in this case be too small. For, if we observe by a method which
discriminates between the two radiations, we shall have, if we sepa-
rately deduce the original lights from our observation of what remains
after one and again after two absorptions, the true sum
(Ag) 2 (BD)s
Aa? Bb?
while if we observe by the ordinary method, which makes no discrimi-
nation, we shall have the erroneous equation
(Aa+ Bb)?
Aa? +Bb?-
which is algebraically less than the first, or correct value, for the
expression
A+B=
oa
(Aa)? a (Bb)? (Aa+ Bb)?
Aad? Bb? Aa*?+ Bb?
readily reduces to the known form
a? +b?>2ab.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Moreover since a2+b2—2ab=(a—b)?*, the error increases with the
difference between the coefficients.
“Now, in the general case, if we suppose the original radiation L
to be composed before absorption, of any number of parts Ay, A»
2)
As, +... . having respectively the coefficients of absorption ay, ds,
a3, + .... the true value of L is given by a series of fractions
which may be written in the form
= (Aa)?
he ee =A
Aa?
whereas the value of the original energy by the customary formula
would be
_ 3(Aa)?
7 SAG?
so that, all the quantities being positive, by a known theorem,
IL >Ly, and for the'same walues'of Ay, Ag; As, fi. « this inequality is
greater, the greater the difference in the values of the coefficients
C1, Ge, As, .
“ But this is stating in other words that the true values, found by
observing separate coefficients of transmission, are always greater than
those found when we do not distinguish between the radiations of
which the light (or heat) of the star or sun is composed, and also that
the amount by which the true values are greater, increases with the
difference between the coefficients.
“We have stated above that the usual hypothesis makes the coef-
ficient of transmission a constant. It will be seen from the above
table, however, that it varies from one stratum to the next; that it
is least when obtained by observations near the zenith; and that it
increases progressively as we approach the horizon.”
“RESEARCHES ON SOLAR HEAT AND ITS ABSORPTION BY THE.
EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE. A REPORT OF THE MOUNT
WHITNEY EXPEDITION.”
“Tf the observation of the amount of heat the sun sends the earth
is among the most important and difficult in astronomical physics,
it may also be termed the fundamental problem of meteorology, nearly
all whose phenomena would become predictable, if we knew both the
original quantity and kind of this heat ; how it affects the constituents
of the atmosphere on its passage earthward ; how much of it reaches
the soil; how, through the aid of the atmosphere, it maintains the
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY
ABBOT I5
surface temperature of this planet; and how, in diminished quantity
and altered kind, it is finally returned to outer space.
“. ... Weare trying to estimate the amount of solar heat before
absorption (the solar constant).
“Could we ascend above the atmosphere, this heat might be directly
measured. Evidently, since this is impossible, and since we can only
observe the portion which filters down to us after absorption, we must
add to this observed remnant a quantity equal to that which the
atmosphere has taken out, in order to reproduce the original amount.
“ To find what it has taken out, we must study the action in detail,
and, from the knowledge thus gained frame a rule or formula which
shall enable us to infer the loss since we cannot directly determine it.
“Tt is because the exact determination of the solar constant thus
presupposes a minute knowledge of the way in which the sun’s heat
is affected by the earth’s atmosphere; and because every change in
our atmosphere comes from this same heat, that the solution of the
problem interests meteorology as well as astronomical physics.
“.. . . Let us consider what the problem appears to be at a first
glance, and what the first suggestion is for solving it. If a beam of
sunlight enters through a crevice in a dark room, the light is partly
interrupted by the dust particles in the air, the apartment is visibly
illuminated by the light reflected from them, and the direct beam
having lost something by this process, is not so bright after it has
crossed the room as before it entered it. If a quarter of the light
was thus scattered, and the beam after it crossed the room would be
but three-fourths as bright as when it entered it, and if we were to
trace the now diminished beam through a second apartment alto-
gether like the other, it seems at first reasonable to suppose that the
same proportion, or three-fourths of the remainder, would be trans-
mitted, and so on, and that the light would be the same kind of light
as before, and only diminished in amount. The assumption originally
made by Bouguer * and followed by Herschel and Pouillet was that it
was in this manner that the solar heat was interrupted by our atmos-
phere, and that by using such a simple progression the original heat
could be calculated.
“ Now, it is no doubt true that a very sensible portion of light and
heat are scattered by an analogous process in our atmosphere ; but we
have in our present knowledge to consider that heat is not a simple
emanation, but a compound of an infinite number of radiations, and
that these are affected in an infinite diversity of ways by the different
“Bouguer, Traité de la lumiére. Paris, 1760.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
atmospheric agents, the grosser dust particles affecting them nearly all
alike, or with a general absorption; the minuter ones beginning to act
selectively, or, on the whole, more at one end of the spectrum than
another ; smaller particles, whether of dust or mist, and smaller still,
forming a probably continuous sequence of more and more selective
action down almost to the actual molecule, whose action is felt in the
purely selective absorption of some single ray.
“ The effect of the action of the grosser particles then is to pro-
duce a general and comparatively indifferent absorption of all rays,
so that the spectrum after such an absorption would simply seem less
bright or less hot. The effect of the smaller ones is, as has just been
said, to act more at one end of the spectrum than another, with a pro-
gressive absorption, so that the quality of the radiation is sensibly
affected as well as its quantity. The effect of the molecular absorption
is to fill the spectrum with evidences of the selective action in the
form of the dark telluric lines, taking out some kinds of light and heat
and not others, so that after absorption what remains is not only less
in amount but quite altered in kind. ... .
“The writer has demonstrated that in neglecting to observe ap-
proximately homogeneous rays we not only commit an error, but an
error which always has the same sign, and that the absorption thus
found is always too small. He accordingly devoted much time to the
construction of an instrument (the bolometer, which will be described
in its place) for the special study of such heat rays, and, with this,
observations were carried on in the years 1880 and 1881 at Allegheny,
with the conclusions which have just been stated. With this instru-
ment the heat in some approximately homogeneous ray (that is in
some separate pencil of rays of nearly the same wave-length) is mea-
sured in the pure and normal spectrum at successive hours of the
day, and the calculation of the absorption on Bouguer’s principle
(justly applicable to strictly homogeneous waves) gives the heat out-
side the atmosphere in this approximately homogeneous portion with
a degree of approximation, depending on the actual minuteness of the
part examined. The process is then repeated on another limited set
of rays, and another, until the separate percentage and the separate
original heat is found for each heat pencil directly or by interpolation,
and then finally the whole heat, by the summing of its parts, the result
being that the solar constant is much greater than it was believed to
be, and the absorption of the atmosphere much greater.
‘Toward the close of 1880 it had already become clear that the
gain in our knowledge by repeating the observations then in prog-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL Oo 2 INOS 8 apes 4:
MOUNTAIN CAMP, MOUNT WHITNEY
From a sketch by T. Moran
; Of ena oe Ea en ae 7
a a a a ee a ee a ee ee Ne Pe eae
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT WwW,
ress at the Allegheny Observatory, at the base and at the summit of
a lofty mountain, would justify the labor and expense of such an
undertaking. There would have been little probability, however, of
such a plan being carried out by the Observatory, were it not for the
generosity of a citizen of Pittsburgh [William Thaw], who placed
at its disposal the considerable means demanded for the outfit of an
expedition for this purpose.
“Upon the objects of the expedition and their bearings upon
meteorology becoming known to the Chief Signal Officer of the
United States Army, he consented to give it the advantage of his
official direction and the aid of Signal Service Observers, and upon
the reasons which made the choice of its objective point in a remote
part of the United States territory being approved by him, he con-
tributed further material aid in transportation. ... . Finally, upon
the advice of Mr. Clarence King, and with the concurrently fav-
orable opinion of officers of the Coast Survey and others familiar
with that region, Mount Whitney, in the Sierra Nevada Range of
Southern California—approximate longitude, 118°30'(7h.54m.) ; lati-
tude, 36°35’—was found to be, on the whole, most desirable. Its
height was known to be between 14,000 and 15,000 feet. Its eastern
slopes are so precipitous that two stations can be found within 12
miles, visible from each other, and whose difference of elevation is
11,000 feet, and it rises from and overlooks one of the most desert
regions of the continent, while its summit is almost perpetually clear
during June, July, August, and September.”
On account of limitations of space, it is impossible to give by quota-
tions a fair idea of this extraordinary expedition. Space even for-
bids that we should quote from the inspiring description Langley gives
of the expedition, its guard of soldiers, the desert journey, the insuf-
ferable heat under which observations were nevertheless made at Lone
Pine, the ascent of the mountain, its grandeur, the dark blue of its
cloudless sky, the long delays waiting for the mule train and instru-
ments, and the observations at Mountain Camp.
Many kinds of observations were carried through. Measurements
of total radiation of the solar beam by the globe and the Violle
actinometers ; measurements of homogeneous solar rays by the linear
spectrobolometer ; measurements of the brightness of the sky by day
and by night ; measurements of the temperature and humidity of the
air at frequent intervals; barometric measurements for determining
the then only approximately known elevation of Mount Whitney ;
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
measurements of the percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere.
Besides all these, even other types of measurements were made in
profusion at Lone Pine, at Mountain Camp, and to some extent on
the peak of Mount Whitney. The reduction of this immense mass of
evidence was a task which occupied Langley’s small force for two
years, though it included the immortal Keeler and the assiduous Very.
The great object was to determine the transparency of the atmosphere
with such certainty, by these operations in one of the purest atmos-
pheres of the world, as to fix the value of the solar constant of radia-
tion. Langley thought to check the determination by computing from
the results at Lone Pine what ought to be found on Mount Whitney.
No less than a fifth of the atmosphere lay between these observing
stations. Unfortunately Langley was misled by this apparently rea-
sonable idea. For at Lone Pine he measured the average transparency
for all atmospheric layers to the limit of the atmosphere, a trans-
parency obviously greater than that of the more humid and dusty
layers between him and Mountain Camp. He could not fairly use
his average results at Lone Pine to compute, as he did, what ought
to be observed at Mountain Camp. By this error of logic, aggravated
by a moderate plus error in the absolute readings of his actinometers, |
Langley persuaded himself that the Mount Whitney Expedition indi-
cated 3.07 calories per square centimeter per minute as the solar con-
stant of radiation, a value more than 50 percent too high. His justly
great authority maintained this erroneous value for more than 20
years.
But it is not this unfortunate aspect of the reduction of Mount
Whitney observations, but the tremendous driving power and fertility
of invention of this astonishing pioneer that should fix our attention.
He practiced for the first time what the problem demanded, namely:
occupation of a high-level desert station, observations of both total
radiation and homogeneous rays, and their combination after a definite
method. These essentials are still the basis of solar-constant work.
He traced and accurately outlined the energy spectrum of the sun far
beyond all previous observers. He obtained for the first time accurate
transmission coefficients for homogeneous rays. In short, Langley
by the Mount Whitney Expedition set up the ideal toward which all
later observers strive to approximate.
“THE TEMPERATURE OF THEMOON |
“That the moon gives light, but no sensible heat, has been a
matter of observation even by the unaided senses of the primitive man,
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT Ig
and the idea that we should expect heat to be associated with the light
seems to be essentially a modern one. This modern view, until very
recently, has been that the light of the moon penetrated to us, while
the rays which give only heat were kept back by our own atmosphere.
Melloni, the most conspicuous early asserter of our present doctrine
that radiant heat and light are but different manifestations of the
same energy, was led to pursue his lunar heat work on Mount Vesu-
vius by these a priori considerations, and his perseverance was justi-
fied by obtaining finally most minute yet real indications of heat. Save
the observations of Piassi Smyth on the Peak of Teneriffe, and of
M. Marie-Davy in France, we shall find, however, that with the excep-
tion of Lord Rosse, of the persons who have sought to observe the
heated moon, nearly all have left only records of failure or of purely
imaginary and therefore misleading, successes.
“Lord Rosse’s work excels greatly in importance that of his prede-
cessors, as he not only obtained unquestionable evidence of lunar heat,
but was able to make the important generalization that since a con-
siderable part of this is intercepted by glass, a great deal of the moon’s
heat is probably radiated from her soil. As regards the temperature
of the sunlit surface of the moon, Lord Rosse determined in his first
paper that it ranges through 500° of the Fahrenheit scale; but in a
subsequent memoir in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society for 1873, this range is stated to be more nearly 200° Fahren-
heit, a large error having crept into the previous work. The assiduous
labor of observation and the instrumental means employed in these
researches have acquired great and deserved repute; but few per-
haps have noticed minutely that in the computation of the ratio of
solar to lunar radiation, the error of assumption is made that all, or
nearly all, of the invisible heat is stopped by glass, with other postu-
lates equally inadmissible in the light of our present knowledge. We
must, then, while rendering a tribute of respect and even admiration
to the conscientious labors of observation and reduction point out
that some of the values derived from them by their author must be
revised, as resting on assumptions which the progress of science has
contradicted.
“In a previous memoir” we have given the results of various
experiments in regard to the distribution of light in the lunar spectrum
°On the Temperature of the Surface of the Moon, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci.,
vol. III.
3
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
together with bolometric measurements of the total lunar radiation and
its transmission, which we here briefly summarize.
“Experiment showed that the moon sends us a little more than
1/100000 part of the heat which we receive from the sun. Of this
lunar radiation we found at the beginning of December only 14 per-
cent transmitted by a specimen of glass which allowed over 75 percent
of the solar rays to pass. An ebonite disk, which was almost com-
pletely opaque to light, transmitted 32 percent of the solar and only
7 percent of the lunar radiation. Very little difference was found in
the apparent transmission of the solar and of the lunar beam by the
earth’s atmosphere as inferred from comparisons at high and low
altitudes above the horizon.
‘Photometric spectral comparisons showed that sunlight is much
richer in the violet rays than moonlight, indicating a selective reflec-
tion by the lunar surface, which, however, becomes less marked as
the red end of the spectrum is approached.
“Comparisons, made in the month of December, 1884, between the
total radiation of the moon and that from a blackened vessel of hot
water, subtending the same angle, showed that the heating effect of
the moon (as received through our absorbing atmosphere) could be
replaced by the (unabsorbed) heat of a lamp-blacked surface at about
+80°C., or 353°C. above absolute zero. A part of the lunar radia-
tion is reflected from the sun and a part never reaches us, being
absorbed by the atmosphere. Due allowance for the former would
diminish, and for the latter would increase, the indicated lunar tem-
perature; but owing to the selective character of the reflection to
which we have already alluded, to our ignorance of the moon's emis-
sive power, and to the fact that the radiations of our atmosphere itself
are of a wave-length similar to a considerable part of those we now
study, no precise deduction can be made... . .
“We have in the last three years pursued these researches with
constantly improving instrumental means, and the following pages are
a description of them and of the results. It will be seen that the great
labor bestowed on them has been given, not to determine a point of
abstract or merely theoretical interest, but that it is justified by the
fact that the whole subject of terrestrial radiation, the temperature of
the surface of our planet, and the conditions of organic life upon it
are intimately related to that of our present research. The entire
radiation of the soil of our earth towards space goes on in a spectral
region of which we have hitherto known nothing. These observations,
in connection with those recently published on invisible spectra and
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 21
the wave-lengths of extreme infra-red rays° give us our first knowl-
edge of this terra incognita. I say ‘knowledge,’ with the admission
that this knowledge is as yet alloyed with those imperfections which
are inherent in the most painstaking work in an utterly new field. All
here is so new that the difficulties themselves are of a quite unfamiliar
kind ; for it is well to bear in mind that though all our observations,
from first to last, are made on an amount of heat which may be well
called infinitesimal, it is still the kind of radiations which produce
this heat rather than the amount which forms the greatest difficulty.
This, as we shall see, is because this heat seems to be largely that
absorbed and reradiated from the substance of the lunar soil, and
whose temperature is consequently so low as to be in constant danger
of being confused with the heat from the terrestrial media it has
passed and from the different parts of the apparatus itself—a difficulty
which, when the thing in question is to ordinary sense both invisible
and inappreciable, constitutes an obstacle almost insurmountable, when
we design to go beyond those features which Lord Rosse succeeded
in noting. We notice, in particular, that however successfully we may
protect our apparatus from the radiations of surrounding objects, we
must always, in the nature of the case, either actually or virtually,
interpose a screen at intervals to interrupt the heat we are measuring.
In ordinary spectrothermal work, as in that on the sun, the radiations
of this screen are perfectly negligible, and would be so if the sun’s heat,
while the same in kind as now, were no greater in amount than the
moon’s. Here, on the contrary, because they are of the same hind as
those radiated from the moon’s cold surface, they become of the first
importance, so that a special study of the radiation of the screen
becomes a necessity.
“ There are three principal methods of investigation: First, the
measurement of the total heat of the moon with a concave mirror of
short focus, concentrating it as much as possible and admitting the
interposition of a sheet of glass to rudely indicate the quality of lunar
rays as compared with those of the sun. This method, which was that
employed by Lord Rosse, has been very thoroughly practiced here with
results which have been partly given in the previous memoir. The sec-
ond method has been to form, usually with this same mirror, an image
of the moon, but this now falls upon the slit of a special spectroscope
*See Am. Journ. of Sci., XXXII, August, 1886, ‘On Hitherto Unrecognized
Wave-Lengths’; also an article in Annales de Chim. et de Phys:, 6:ser., 1. EX;
December, 1886, ‘Sur les spectres invisibles.’
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
provided with a train of rock-salt lenses and a salt prism of excep-
tional size and purity; and after expanding this excessively minute
heat in this way it has been found possible, with late improvements in
the apparatus, to measure by the bolometer the different degrees of
heat in the different parts of this lunar spectrum; and the doing of
this, with its results, forms the principal subject of the present memoir.
_.. Third. Since such a mirror as that just mentioned, owing to
its short focus, forms an extremely small lunar image, in certain
observations, carried on, however, only during a limited time, we have
taken advantage of the sensitiveness of our apparatus to explore a
large lunar image with the bolometer in spite of the diminished heat
in such a one. For this purpose a special mirror 303 mm in diameter
and 3,137 mm focus, giving a lunar image of about 30 mm diameter,
has been employed.’ On the special occasion of a lunar eclipse the
last-named apparatus has also been used.
. . . . . . . . .
“ Tet it be remembered that every observation on radiant heat, how-
ever conducted, whether by the thermometer, the bolometer or thermo-
pile, on the sun or moon, or on a neighboring candle—every observa-
tion in radiant heat, we repeat, involves the use of a screen at some
stage in the process ; since its use is inherent from the very nature of
the observation. Again, let it be remembered that, in this peculiar
case, the screen itself not only intercepts other rays, but contributes
radiations of its own of like quality and amount to those which we
would study, and the importance of the investigation to be shortly
given on its theory becomes manifest. It will be seen later that the
screen is used as little as possible, and that to this end every observa-
tion on the moon is preceded by one on the adjacent sky to the east
and followed by one on the adjacent sky to the west; and that the
lunar radiation is compared in every case immediately with the mean
of the last two and only mediately with that of the screen, whose use
we might here appear to be able to dispense with, but which is in fact
imposed upon us, we repeat, at some time in the course of the observa-
tions by conditions inherent in the nature of the observations
themselves.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
“ The conclusion of the whole matter is, that we have been dealing
with a subject almost on the limit of our power of investigation with
™ This special mirror has been kindly loaned to us by Mr. J. A. Brashear, of
Allegheny.
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 23
the present means of science, and have reached no conclusions which
we are absolutely sure of. As regards the main point, concerning the
radiant heat of the moon, we know that it is divided into two salient
kinds, reflected and emitted heat, and that the latter overlaps the
former and extends probably between the deviation 40° of a rock-salt
60° prism (corresponding to A=1“.03) and a deviation of over 33°
in the extreme infra-red (A=perhaps 50“). Contrary to all previous
expectations, it nevertheless reaches us, thus bringing evidence of the
partial transparency of our terrestrial atmosphere even to such rays as
are emitted by the soil of our planet. It is probable, as remarked
elsewhere, that even of the heat of arctic ice some minute portion
escapes by direct radiation into space.
“Tf beyond this we can be said to be sure of anything, it is that
the actual temperature of the lunar soil is far lower than it is believed
to be; but the evidence does not warrant us in fixing its maximum
temperature more nearly than to say it is little above 0° centigrade ;
but, it will be seen, the writer is sensible that this conclusion mili-
tates against one drawn by him from the Mount Whitney observa-
tions, according to which the soil of an airless planet at the moon’s
distance would have a temperature not greatly above —225°C. Great
experimental labor on this expedition was expended in ascertaining
the excess of temperature which a thermometer-bulb would attain in
space at the earth’s distance from the sun, which was found to be
approximately 48° centigrade. From this observation, which appears
to be quite trustworthy, the writer drew the inference that the sunward
surface of an airless planet would be very greatly below the zero of
the centigrade thermometer, and materially colder than the moon’s
surface appears by these observations to be. As between my obser-
vations and my inferences, I hold to the former; and since later and
long-continued observations, of the character detailed in this volume,
show that the temperature of the sunward surface of the moon (which
is certainly nearly airless) is almost as certainly not greatly below
zero, I have been led to believe myself mistaken in one of the infer-
ences drawn from former experiments, in themselves exact, where
this inference is not supported by these later observations.
“ Several methods have been tried for obtaining the ratio of the
total radiation of the full moon to that of the sun, with results rang-
ing from 1/70000 to 1/110000. The liability to error in the compari-
son of such diverse quantities is obvious; but a portion of the dis-
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
crepancy is undoubtedly due to variation in the transmissibility of our
atmosphere to the peculiar rays emitted by the moon.
“ From measures in different parts of the lunar image, we find that
the rays absorbed by glass are present in greater proportion in the
radiation coming from the dark areas, or so-called “seas”. . :
The smaller radiation of the dark regions is presumably due to the
presence of a larger proportion of those longer waves to which our
atmosphere is partially opaque.
“ Measurements in the lunar image during an eclipse of the moon
showed a very rapid diminution of the heat as the eclipse progressed,
a small amount (not over 2 percent, however) remaining in the
umbra, of a quality to which glass was entirely opaque. The incre-
ment of the lunar radiation on the passing of the eclipse was appar-
ently almost as rapid as its previous decrease.
“Tess rapid than the change during an eclipse, but still strongly
marked, is the transposition which occurs in the degree of heat
observable at the east and west limbs, respectively, a few hours before
and after the full. Thirty-six hours before the full the radiation of the
west limb in terms of that from the central region of the moon was
0.958, that of the east limb being 0.574; while thirteen hours after
the full the order was reversed, the west limb giving 0.611 and the
east 0.727.
“We next give the observations reduced to the full and to a mean
distance, but uncorrected for atmospheric absorption, arranged ac-
cording to the season in two groups, the object of this arrangement
being to compare any systematic variation of the atmospheric absorp-
tion with the change of season. [Only the mean values given here. ]
Lunar Spectrum—W inter Observations (November to April),
Reduced to Full Moon and Mean Distance
No. .. 40°00’ 39°45’ 39°30’ 39°15’ 39°00’ 38°45’ 38°30’ 38°15’ 38°00" 37°45’ 37°30
Mean.. 16.9 15.6 17.4 16.1 15.3 14.1 11.4 12.4 24.1 39.2 48.
INOS pith cccrererelole 37°15’ 37°00’ 36°45 36°30’ 36°15’ 36°00 35°45° B5°200 | 35 .705.0 .3500
Mean vrs srrmicteirele 43.0 36.0 38.4 32.2 25.9 25.6 21.8 18.3 17.4 11.6
Lunar Spectrum—Summer Observations (May to October),
Reduced to Full Moon and Mean Distance
Mean.. 15.7 22.5 19.9 17.8 15.0 6.5 4.8 4.2 10.1 30.5 35-7
Meant ‘isterjecctcle 41.0 3701 33-9 20.4 27.4 15.5 E72 13.0 10.7 9-7
“Tt will be seen from the above table and from the curves in
Plate r1 that there is on the whole a slight increase in the atmospheric
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 25
absorption in the summer. This increase would be still more marked
if only the coldest and driest days of winter had been compared with
the most humid of summer. ....
“. . . The most reliable spectrum comparisons with a blackened
screen show an average ‘effective lunar temperature’ of +45.°C.
near the time of full moon.
*. -.. A-measurement.. .-. ..gives for the ratio of
reflected radiation _
emitted radiation
This, it is to be remembered, is the ratio after absorption by the
earth’s atmosphere; but the extreme infra-red rays may have suf-
fered unduly in passing this barrier... . .
These researches on the temperature and spectrum of the moon
entailed observations at Allegheny on more than 50 nights spread
over the coldest of winter and the hottest of summer, as well as in
months less trying to the observers, from October 1884 to February
1887. The spectrum observations alone, absolutely pioneering in
character, of which only mean values are quoted here, occupied 22
nights, besides the preparation for them on uncounted days.
In order to avoid errors from the scattering of the more abundant
rays of other wave lengths into the weaker regions observed in the
lunar spectrum, Langley was obliged to use two spectroscopes in
tandem, each employing a rock-salt prism because glass is opaque to
such rays as are emitted by cool bodies like the moon. The common
experience of the salt shaker at the dinner table has taught us how
readily rock salt absorbs water. The slightest cloud of mist upon a
rock-salt prism is prejudicial to its optical performance. It is easy to
imagine, therefore, how often in summer the spectral observations of
the moon were interrupted, and Dr. Langley’s good friend Mr.
Brashear came to the rescue by resurfacing the prisms.
“ON HITHERTO UNRECOGNIZED WAVE-LENGTHS”
“We are led to take this labor, not primarily to settle the theo-
retical questions involved in determining the relation between dis-
persion and wave-length (though these are most interesting), but
with the object of providing a way which will hereafter enable any
observer to determine the visible or invisible wave-lengths of any
heat, whether from a celestial or terrestrial source, observed in any
prism; and thus to gain that knowledge of the intimate constitution
of radiant bodies which an acquaintance with the vibratory period of
their molecules can usually alone afford us. It is this considerable
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
end—the opening up to research of the whole unexplored region of
infra-red energy, not only from celestial but from terrestrial sources—
which will, we trust, justify the labor devoted to the following
determinations.”
He describes the arrangement of his apparatus, which includes a
diffraction grating and a prism in tandem. A beam of radiation from
the sun or the electric arc first traverses the diffraction grating spectro-
scope, whereby a group of rays of even multiples of the wave length
of a certain selected visible ray are all concentrated upon the slit of
the prismatic spectroscope. In the latter, the prismatic deviations are
measured, and from them are readily computed the indices of refrac-
tion of each of these rays of selected wave lengths.
“ There are in fact, passing through the same slit and lying super-
posed on one another by an unavoidable property of the grating, an
infinite number of spectra in theory, of which in this case nearly
twenty are actually recognizable, by photography, by the eye, or by
the bolometer, and of which, to consider only those where the wave
length is equal to or greater than that of the sodium line D.° we have
six spectra as follows:
Wave length
a. (visible) 6th spectrum Das eye leer rerteahe ee one A = o#.5890
b. ‘s sth s Oyise Mas ye eateries cise 0 .7068
c. (invisible) 4th is G/AS Datik etnies on riers 0 .8835
d. He 3d 2 6/3 se baad see eee I .1780
é. 7 2d $ 6/2 Desc hecjeaeecotunion I .7670
fe * Ist * 6) 0) Wa erste opera 2.5340
“Tt is in this invisible underlying first spectrum, buried, so to
speak, beneath five others, of which three are themselves invisible
also, that lies the wave-length we are seeking ; consequently, there are
(to consider no others) at least six qualities of heat, of six distinct
refrangibilities, whose wave-lengths are equal to or greater than that
of Ds, which pass simultaneously through the slit S,. They pass
through the prism, and on looking through a telescope occupying the
position of the bolometer tube, we shall by suitably directing the arm
of the spectroscope see the light from the sixth one at a. Its wave-
length will be o”.5890, corresponding to a measured deviation (in
the case of the rock-salt prism, of an angle of 60°00'00” and a tempera-
ture of 20°C.) of 41°05’40”. Now on replacing the telescope by the
8We have heretofore adopted Angstrém’s notation in calling the more
refrangible sodium line ‘D,’. We shall hereafter, however, in conformity with
the now more general usage, call this line, whose wave-length in Angstr6m is
5880, ‘D.’. The corrections to Angstrom are due to the researches of Messrs.
Peirce and Rowland.
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 27
bolometer, the bolometer wire will feel this same ray which the eye
has just recognized by its light, and, if the galvanometer be in a
sensitive condition, the image will be thrown by the heat off the scale,
while a little on either side of this position no indication will be given.
The beam and the slit S, remaining in the same position, let us next
suppose that the bolometer arm is carried toward J, in the direction of
B. There will be no sensible deflection until it reaches the position b
in the red, corresponding to a wave-length of 0“.7068, and in the prism
to an angle of 40°33’ nearly, for there is no sensible heat except in
the successive images of slit S, formed by the prism P in the line
PB. Passing farther toward B we come into the heat in c, and next to
the heat in d which is less than 1/100 that in the direct prismatic
image, when no grating is employed.
© This was the utmost limit of our power of measurement in 1883,
beyond this point radiations from the grating being then absolutely
insensible, and the radiation at the point d itself being excessively
minute, even in the solar spectrum, where the heat, so far as any is
found, is as a rule far greater than that in the spectrum of the arc.
Accordingly I have elsewhere observed that these measures could be
carried on as well by a large electric arc as by the sun; but in fact,
owing to the difficulties attendant on bringing the arc, which must be
of immense heat, close to slit S,;, and to other causes, the sunlight
would be preferable wherever it could be used.
“ Our observation of June 7, 1882, gave the value of the index of
refraction corresponding to A= 2.356, which was the lowest possibly
attainable by our then apparatus. Incessant practice and study, result-
ing in improvements already referred to, have enabled us finally to
measure down to a wave-length of 9xXAD,z corresponding to a posi-
tion much below f. We may add that in doing so, it is sometimes con-
venient to employ a bolometer wide enough to overlap the images in
the other adjacent spectra of the higher orders, which we may usually
do without confusing them, owing to their feebleness compared with
that of the first spectrum in which we are searching.
“ We usually, however, employ a bolometer of not more than I mm
aperture, and this demands excessive delicacy in the heat-measuring
apparatus, since the heat here is, approximately speaking, about
1/too0o of that in the region between the sodium lines in the direct
spectrum of a rock-salt prism. This is near the limit of our present
measuring powers with the grating, even when every possible device
is used to increase the extremely feeble heat in this part of the
spectrum.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
“We commenced by using an electric arc with carbons 12 mm in
diameter in the position indicated. These were supplied by an engine
of three horse-power; but even in this case the pit of the crater did
not nearly cover the very short slit (its length is 8 mm). For these
last and most difficult measurements, we have been obliged to pro-
cure the use of an engine of twelve horse-power and carbons 25 mm
(one inch) in diameter. With this enormous current the hottest part
is not easily maintained in place. To keep it directly in front of the slit
we have tried various plans, such as boring out the carbons length-
wise, so as to form hollow cylinders of them, and filling the core with
a very pure carbon tempered to the requisite solidity. Ordinarily it
will be sufficient however to first form the central crater by a drill.
This gives us a persistent crater, whose light, in the position shown
in the engraving, filled a slit whose vertical height is 8 mm. It is prob-
ably the intensest artificial heat ever subjected to analysis.
“Tn the following brief table we have summarized the results of
all this labor. Our working method gave the index in terms of the
wave-length, but since ordinarily the former is the known, and the
latter the unknown quantity, we here give the mean probable error as
finally corrected as a function of the latter.
Given indices of
refraction in Wave-lengths from direct observation
rock-salt (a) by the eye (b) by the
prism bolometer
TESAUD® erase oer res ce etatatenieteveeleter> AD: = o#.5890 = 0.000 (a)
Te 53 OMieevercetciere crsterse chats stole svenecels 2 XDz= 1.1780 ==/0:0025(0))
TAG 272. ovo nic eutekyelesrermiele elated: 3 X AD2= I .7670 + 0.005 (b)
TG 254s ober kt scr toto eel 4 X AD2= 2 .3560 + 0.009 (b)
TAG DAG Vey atysists fet-Ncyelerskeren yori etek-|= 5 X AD. = 2 .9451 + 0.013 (0D)
TRG 22 ar eyenerociistsnotoesis ote teievel eles 6 5<XDi = 3) 5347 2= 0019 (D)
TAS SMS eye rersiy retterctetetbereverrercnsts 7X ADsa= 4 .1231 = 0.029 (0)
TAG AO Ue acneyte eS aeyrca ene oraeatne eres 8X AD2= 4 .7121 + 0.043 (0)
TAG OOM cays eieiele Sieh aero olsen OND; = siegorr 2.01005, (0)
Compared to our later determinations and those of Paschen, these
observed indices of refraction of rock salt are found to differ but one
or two units in the fourth place of decimals from the true values.
To estimate the wave lengths of his lunar spectrum, Langley extra-
polated, using the best formula then available. As this formula was
erroneous for these great wave lengths, its results gave him exag-
gerated impressions of the greatness of the wave lengths he actually
observed. For instance, in Appendix No. 1 of his paper “ The Solar
and Lunar Spectrum,” he gives a wave length as 21.5 microns which,
corrected by modern data, should read 10.7 microns. Similarly the
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 29
latter values of the table which concludes “On Hitherto Unrecog-
nized Wave-Lengths ” are considerably too great.
ANNALS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, VOLUME 1
As indicated in the remarkable passage already quoted from the
Mount Whitney Report, Langley’s prophetic instinct told him that
in the study of the sun’s radiation rested the main hope of long-range
weather forecasting. He moved toward the establishment of solar
research at the Smithsonian Institution soon after becoming Secretary.
He writes:
“This book is the result of a research originally due to a discovery,
made in the year 1881 with the then newly invented bolometer, in
the clear air of an altitude of over 12,000 feet, of solar heat in a
then unknown spectral region now called the ‘lower infra-red spec-
trum.’ The bolometer has since been used to explore and to map the
region in question, through the long succeeding intervals, in the latter
part of which it has reached an accuracy and a sensitiveness greater
than I could once have hoped for.
“This map is now (June 18, 1900), after years of constant work,
finally published in the present form; not because this edition is
final, but because the long labor must come to some term, and because
I desire to see its results published while I may hope to see them made
useful.
“While we are far from looking forward to foretelling by such
means the remoter changes of weather which affect the harvests, or
to results of such importance as the power of such a prevision would
indicate, still it is hardly too much to say that we appear to begin
to move in that direction, and it seems to me that my own early hopes
of making the study of the solar energy not simply an interesting
scientific pursuit, but one of material usefulness, may one day be
justified.
“In the reports of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
for the years ending June 30, 1888 and 1889, mention is made of the
hope then cherished of erecting and equipping an observatory for
astrophysical research; and in the year following, 1890, he is at last
‘able to say that this object has assumed definite shape in the con-
struction of a temporary shed, begun on November 20, 1889 and
. completed about the 1st of March, 1890. This building is of
the most inexpensive character, and is simply intended to protect the
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
instruments temporarily, though it is also arranged so that certain
preliminary work can be done here. Its position, however, immediately
south of the main Smithsonian building, is not well suited to refined
physical investigations, on account of its proximity to city streets
and its lack of seclusion.’
. . .
“The distinct object of astrophysics is, in the case of the sun, for example, not
to mark its exact place in the sky, but to find out how it affects the earth and
the wants of man on it; how its heat is distributed, and how it in fact affects
not only the seasons and the farmer’s crops, but the whole system of living things
on the earth, for it has lately been proven that in a physical sense it, and almost
it alone, literally first creates and then modifies them in almost every possible
way.
“From the beginning of regular operations at the observatory in
June, 1891, till the 1st of March, 1892, efforts were chiefly directed
to getting the apparatus in satisfactory condition for observations.
Much time was spent on the improvement of galvanometers, in testing
bolometers and prisms, and in the determination of their constants.
“At length, on March 2, 1892, a ‘rehearsal’ occurred, in which
the procedure followed in the bolometric investigations of the infra-
red solar spectrum at Allegheny, already referred to on a previous
page, was gone through with for the first time at the observatory.
A second rehearsal occurred on the following day, and on reviewing
it an entry was made by the writer March 4, 1892, in the record book
in use by Dr. William Hallock, from which the following quotation
is taken:
“T think your yesterday’s spectral maps were quite successful for a first
attempt—indeed, notably so, and give evidence of the goodness both of the system
and of the instrumental means. The salient defect of the latter is in the ‘ drift’
of the galvanometer, which, though reduced to limits which are insignificant com-
pared to those which it had when I first began the study, is still a barrier to the
best work.
“My idea (if drift could be eliminated) would be to have a vertical strip of
sensitive paper rolled perpetually upward by a clockwork in the focus of the
galvanometer mirror. The sides of this paper are marked in degrees and
minutes, corresponding to divisions of the spectrometer circle, whose arm is
moved by the same clockwork (through electric or other intermediary), so that
when the circle is turned through n minutes of arc, the paper is moved upward
linearly by a quantity corresponding to the same angular measure. A light is
reflected from the mirror onto the paper, on which are traced the movements of
the mirror due to the varying heat of the spectrum and to passing inequalities of
the sky transmission. (The mirror movement has to be dampened so that there
is no sensible swing.) The whole spectrum could be thus traversed in five
minutes or less, as many as twelve curves could be taken in an hour, and a com-
posite photograph would eliminate the accidental disturbances.
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT aL
“All this implies that ‘drift,’ if not eliminated, is to be greatly reduced. Please
consider this ‘drift,’ as well as the little movements of the needle due to changes
in the apparatus itself, under these three heads:
(a) Changes due to alterations in the galvanometer.
(b) Changes due to alterations in the bolometer.
(c) Changes due to alterations in the battery, and all other sources.
“Tt seems quite certain that these are due largely to temperature.
“ Our object hereafter is to map the lines.”
Under his assistants, Hallock, Wadsworth, and R. C. Child, this
program was so far fulfilled that in the year 1894 Langley exhibited
at the Oxford meeting of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science a map of the infrared solar spectrum as far as a
wave length of 4.2 microns. This was based on automatic energy
curves produced by continuous photographic records of the warming
and cooling of the strip of the fine linear bolometer, as expressed in
the swings of the sensitive galvanometer.
The present writer and his colleague, Mr. Fowle, continued this
mapping of the infrared solar spectrum. Volume 1 of the Annals of
the Astrophysical Observatory contained a discussion of the apparatus,
a map of the infrared solar spectrum containing 579 lines and bands
between wave lengths 0.76 and 5.3 microns, a highly accurate measure-
ment of the dispersion of rock salt to 5.3 microns, and various sub-
sidiary reports. The finest details of the infrared spectral map de-
pended on a decision by the observers as to whether small nicks in the
energy curves denoted solar or atmospheric absorption, or merely
accidental error from shaking or electrical disturbance. This led
Langley to what seemed to me the smoothest piece of dictation I ever
heard. Unfortunately the stenographer was inexperienced, and it lost
something before printing, even though Langley spent considerable
time over it in manuscript and proofs. It is as follows:
“When we approach the limits of vision or audition, or of percep-
tion by any other of the human senses, no matter how these may be
fortified by instrumental aid, we finally perceive, and always must
perceive, a condition still beyond, where certitude becomes incertitude,
although we may not be able to designate precisely where one ceases
and the other begins.
“This is always the case, it would seem, on the boundaries of our
knowledge in every department, and it is so here.
“Tt is impossible, for instance, to look at the great and notable
deflection of a line such as A, or to the deflections corresponding
to yet larger bands below it, and to see these in exactly the same
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
place on scores of plates taken for years together without feeling an
absolute certitude of their real existence as regions of special absorp-
tion in the solar or terrestrial atmosphere. After longer study it is
found that as absolute a certainty exists as to many hundred smaller
lines seen in the same conditions, and yet as we improve our appara-
tus and recognize still minuter solar deflections, we finally come to a
condition where these are reduced to the same order of magnitude as
those which may be due to earth tremors and to similar accidental .
disturbances, which are here represented by the irregular line which
is called the ‘ battery record.’
“But, it may be asked, are we not entitled to demand that these
last should somehow be eliminated altogether and the ‘ battery record ’
become a perfectly smooth line? The answer is, that this can never be.
“As seismography improves, it becomes more clear that there is no
part of the earth’s surface free from constant tremor ; as the refine-
ments of electrical science advance we constantly discover earth cur-
rents where they were not perceived before ; as we multiply the sensi-
tiveness of our measuring apparatus, till it comes to what seems almost
indefinite delicacy, we find that the most massive apparatus and the
most refined precautions which we may take, do not prevent the exis-
tence of all but infinitesimally small accidental disturbances, nor of
the notation of their sensible effects if the record itself be only minute
enough, for this record is a testimony, in fact, to the sensitiveness of
the apparatus itself, and minute disturbances are always to be found
if the observation itself which deals with them provides in itself the
means of detecting them.
“Tt fell to the writer once to establish a permanent meridian instru-
ment whose supports he desired to build up with every condition of
stability which experience and caution could suggest. He personally
looked to the obtaining of the required blocks of granite at the quarry
and to laying them in the same way in the foundation of the observa-
tory on its bed rock as they lay in the original bed, and he super-
intended the placing of those, one upon the other, until the foundation
was laid for the piers which finally supported the instrument, and
which were chosen with the same care. He believed that this instru-
ment was as solidly mounted as anything on the earth could be. He
used it for many years in his observations with a confidence justified
by the results; but these observations required a powerful telescope,
and there was no time at which a tap of the fingers on the side of
the monolothic piers which carried the telescope would not be accom-
panied by an apparent leap in the heavens of the star on which it
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 33
was directed—a statement which will not surprise any professional
astronomer. It is made here to emphasize the like statement that
there is, then, no limit to our power of perception of tremors. These
are, it will be remembered, instances which may be paralleled in
illustrations drawn from the use of other senses, and not peculiar to
the present observation.
“Clearly, we may never distinguish the entire number of solar
lines which exist here more than we could in visible spectra by the use
of the eye or by photography. In every case there must finally come a
time when we must stop our investigations because we have reached
a degree of minuteness in the solar lines corresponding to the inter-
vening disturbances due to terrestrial causes, which we can never
eliminate.”
“ON A POSSIBLE VARIATION OF THE SOLAR RADIATION AND
ITS PROBABLE EFFECT ON TERRESTRIAL
TEMPERATURES) 7
This was Langley’s last important paper. It was based on observa-
tions by Mr. Fowle and the present writer made at Washington. After
long experience in far better observing locations we cannot suppose
that the solar variations indicated in 1903 were real. Nevertheless
they embarked us on a long endeavor to determine accurately the limits
of the solar variation and its effects on weather. This investigation
now [1934] seems certain to be of quite as great importance as
Langley ever dreamed, for it gives promise of long-range weather
forecasting, not only for seasons but for years in advance. But let
us quote from the paper.
“The purpose of the present communication is primarily to discuss
the validity of a surmise we may entertain, founded on observation
here, as to certain possible changes in the solar constant. There is
especially discussed a possible falling off of solar radiation about the
close of March 1903, as indicated by certain recent values of solar
radiation computed from observations here, and compared with ac-
tually observed temperatures for eighty-nine stations of the North
Temperate Zone.
“The homogeneous rays are observed here by the bolometer, and
the bolographic curves from which the atmospheric extinction of
radiation is inferred, traced by the movement of the spot of light upon
the galvanometer scale, are now very much more satisfactory than
formerly. They represent an immense gain over the conditions operat-
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
ing when I began the work at Allegheny. The light-spot should move
only by an impulse from the Sun, but, owing to extraneous causes, it
was at first frequently impossible to keep it upon the scale of the
galvanometer during so short a time as a single minute. The apparatus
now, however, operates so well that such drift and tremor is relatively
unknown, and the zero of the galvanometer is found almost unchanged
for weeksitogether. . .
After discussing the methods of observing, the solar constant of
radiation, and giving a table of 25 values of it observed at Washington
in 1902, 1903, and 1904, Langley continues:
“Tooking at the general results, these seem then to indicate a
possibility that a rapid fall of solar radiation occurred about the
close of March,’ and that subsequently the radiation continued nearly
or quite 10 percent less than before. This, if certain, would be impor-
tant, and we may inquire what causes on the Sun could produce such
a change, and what effects might be expected to be produced on the
Earth if it occurred.
“ The writer showed nearly thirty years ago” that the envelope of
the Sun profoundly influences by its absorption the radiation received
by the Earth. While the absorption in the solar envelope is not exactly
known, still so much is known that we may infer that if it were
absent for a moment the Earth would receive nearly double its present
amount of heat. If a variation of 10 percent in the transparency of
this envelope occurred, nearly 10 percent of change in the solar radia-
tion outside the Earth’s atmosphere would follow.
“Tf a fall of solar radiation did occur, there ought to have been
a similar change of terrestrial temperatures afterward, and we may
inquire how great this fall of temperature should be.
“The Earth may be regarded as a body at a mean temperature of
290° absolute (17°C.), maintained at approximately constant tem-
perature by a balance between solar radiation received and terrestrial
radiation emitted. It is here assumed that all sources of heat other
than the solar radiation are negligible, but if any or all of them are
not so, the effect of their presence will be to reduce the effect on
temperature of a fall in solar radiation.
“ Recent studies of German physicists have experimentally verified,
for the perfect radiator, Stefan’s law that the emission of a heated
°Tt is of interest to note that a marked increase of Sun spots occurred on
March 2r. See Report of the Council, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical
Society, 64, 357:
2 Comptes Rendus, 81, 436, Sept. 6, 1875.
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 35
body is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature.” Other
bodies not perfect radiators depart from this law in the sense that,
while radiating less absolutely than the perfect radiator, their emis-
sion is more nearly proportional to a power of the temperature higher
than the fourth.” Suppose 7, to be the mean temperature of the Earth
corresponding to a rate of solar radiation S,, and T;, that correspond-
ing to S,. Assume further that the reflecting power of the Earth
remains unchanged, and that no appreciable heat is received from
other sources than the Sun. Then
(1) 5:
= ——, where X>4.
Ee SF a
Accordingly if, as supposed, S» is 9/10 Sy,
fi >oo974i,-
elie 200 sthenwls>>282:-5 cand: iy— laze 5G,
“It may then be stated that if the solar radiation remained for a
long period of time at a value which would maintain the Earth’s sur-
face at a mean temperature of 17°C., and then fell 10 percent, and so
remained indefinitely, the fall of temperature of the Earth’s surface
would be less than 7°.5C.
“ But if the solar radiation fluctuated between limits separated by
10 percent, the fluctuation of terrestrial temperature would be less,
according to the frequency of the fluctuations of solar radiation.
Again, parts of the Earth’s surface most closely associated with the
oceans by the influences of winds, ocean currents, and rainfall would
be least affected by such solar fluctuations, and would respond most
slowly to a permanent alteration of solar radiation.
“From the foregoing considerations we may then infer that the
effect of a fall of 10 percent in the solar radiation should diminish the
mean temperature of the Earth not more than 7°.5C., and indefinitely
less according to the shortness of the time elapsing before the radia-
tion regained its former value. Stations near the sea, or subject to
ocean currents and winds, or to heavy rainfall, would lag far behind
stations in the interior of great continents in their temperature
fluctuations.
“When we come to the study of actual temperatures over the
Earth’s surface, we find that all collections of temperature data for
single stations in the interior of great continents, covering long periods
“O. Lummer, Rapports Présentés au Congrés International de Physique, 2
78-81, 1900.
* H. Kayser, Handbuch der Spectroscopie, 2, 77-82.
4
’
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
of time, exhibit nearly every year such considerable irregular varia-
tions from the normal temperatures that we are at no loss to find varia-
tions comparable in dimensions with those we are supposing to be
caused by a fluctuating solar radiation. But it is only within the last
year that we have the series of radiation measures with which to com-
pare temperatures, and we now turn to recent temperatures as pub-
lished in the Internationaler Dekadenberichte of the Deutsche
Seewarte for nearly one hundred stations, for each ten-day period of
1903, and accompanied by normal temperatures representing the mean
for the same ten-day periods of many former years.” ... .
“On comparing the observed temperatures of 89 stations, distrib-
uted over the North Temperate Zone, with the mean temperatures of
the same stations for many previous years, it is found that an average
decrease of temperature of over 2°C. actually did follow the possible
fall of the solar radiation, while the temperature continued low dur-
ing the remainder of the year. Stations remote from the retarding
influence of the oceans show a much greater variation than that of the
general mean.
“ While it is difficult to conceive what influence, not solar, could
have produced this rapid and simultaneous reduction of temperatures
over the whole North Temperate Zone, and continued operative for
so long a period, the evidence of solar variation cannot be said to be
conclusive. Nevertheless, such a conclusion seems not an unreason-
able inference from the data now at hand, and a continuation of these
bolographic studies of solar radiation is of increasing interest, in view
of their possible aid in forecasting terrestrial climatic changes, con-
ceivably due to solar ones.”
“EXPERIMENTS IN AERODYNAMICS”
We now turn from astronomy, Langley’s primary field, to aviation,
a subject which intrigued him from boyhood’s days, and in which
in his later years he made advances so great that he barely missed the
goal of achieving human flight in heavier-than-air machines. While
still at the Allegheny Observatory, he began experiments on the lift and
resistance of rapidly moving surfaces in air, employing a whirling
arm to carry them, and ingenious automatic instruments of his own
design to record the results. This work he continued at Washington,
resulting in a publication “ Experiments in Aerodynamics.”
* The writer is indebted to Professor Cleveland Abbe and to Dr. W. F. R.
Phillips, librarian of the U. S. Weather Bureau, for their aid in making accessible
the publications of temperature data in possession of the Weather Bureau.
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 37
“Schemes for mechanical flight have been so generally associated
in the past with other methods than those of science, that it is com-
monly supposed the long record of failures has left such practical
demonstration of the futility of all such hopes for the future that no
one of scientific training will be found to give them countenance.
While recognizing that this view is a natural one, I have, however,
during some years, devoted nearly all the time at my command for
research, if not directly to this purpose, yet to one cognate to it, with
a result which I feel ought now to be made public.
‘Further than this, these new experiments, (and theory also when
reviewed in their light,) show that if in such aerial motion, there be
given a plane of fixed size and weight, inclined at such an angle, and
moved forward at such a speed, that it shall be sustained in horizontal
tight, then the more rapid the motion is, the less will be the power
required to support and advance it. This statement may, I am aware,
present an appearance so paradoxical that the reader may ask himseli
if he has rightly understood it. To make the meaning quite indubi-
table, let me repeat it in another form, and say that these experiments
show that a definite amount of power so expended at any constant
rate, will attain more economical results at high speeds than at low .
ones—e. g., one horse-power thus employed, will transport a larger
weight at 20 miles an hour than at Io, a still larger at 40 miles than
at 20, and so on, with an increasing economy of power with each
higher speed, up to some remote limit not yet attained in experiment,
but probably represented by higher speeds than have as yet been
reached in any other mode of transport—a statement which demands
and will receive the amplest confirmation later in these pages.
“The reader, especially if he be himself skilled in observation,
may perhaps be willing to agree that since there is here so little
yet established, so great a variety of tentative experiments must be
made, that it is impossible to give each of them at the outset all
the degree of accuracy which is ultimately desirable, and that he may
yet find all trustworthy within the limits of their present application.
“ T do not, then, offer here a treatise on aerodynamics, but an experi-
mental demonstration that we already possess in the steam-engine as
now constructed, or in other heat engines, more than the requisite
power to urge a system of rigid planes through the air at a great
velocity, making them not only self-sustaining, but capable of carrying
other than their own weight. This is not asserting that they can be
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
steadily and securely guided through the air, or safely brought to the
ground without shock, or even that the plane itself is the best form
of surface for support ; all these are practical considerations of quite
another order, belonging to the yet inchoate art of constructing suit-
able mechanisms for guiding heavy bodies through the air on the
principles indicated, and which art (to refer to it by some title dis-
tinct from any associated with ballooning) I will provisionally call
aerodromics.“ With respect to this inchoate art, I desire to be under-
stood as not here offering any direct evidence, or expressing any opin-
ion other than may be implied in the very description of these experi-
ments themselves.
“The experiments in question, for obtaining first approximations
to the power and velocities needed to sustain in the air such heavy
inclined planes or other models in rapid movement, have been prin-
cipally made with a very large whirling table, located on the grounds
of the Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Pa. (lat. 40°27'41.6” ; long.
5"20"2.93°; height above the sea-level, 1,145 feet). .
“The site is a hill on the north of the valley of the Ohio and
rising about 400 feet above it. At the time of these observations the
hill-top was bare of trees and of buildings, except those of the obser-
vatory itself: 102 4
“The whirling table consists essentially of two symmetrical wooden
arms, each 30 feet (9.15 meters) long, revolving in a plane eight feet
above the ground... .. The whirling table was driven first by a gas-
engine of about 13 horse-power, but it was found inadequate to do the
work required, and, after October 20, 1888, a steam-engine giving 10
horse-power was used in its stead... . .
“ This system gives for 120 revolutions of the steam-engine per
minute, driving—
18 in. pulley, 48 revolutions of turn-table per minute = 100 + miles per hour
at end of arm.
253 in. pulley, 24 revolutions of turn-table per minute = 50 + miles per hours
at end of arm.
36 in. pulley, 12 revolutions of turn-table per minute = 25 + miles per hour
at end of arm.
“ By regulating the speed of the engine any intermediate velocities
can be obtained, and thus the equipment should be susceptible of
furnishing speeds from 10 to 100 miles per hour (4.5 to 45 meters
per second) ; but owing to the slipping of belts the number of turn-
“From depodpouéw, to traverse the air; depodpouos, an air-runner.
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 39
table revolutions was less than this for the higher velocities, so that
the highest attained in the experiments did not reach this upper limit,
but was a little over 100 feet (30 meters) per second, or about seventy
miles per hour. The precise velocity actually attained by the turn-
table is determined, quite independently of the speed of the engine,
by an electrical registration on the standard chronograph in the
observatory.”
Langley devised ingenious recording instruments called the “ sus-
pended plane,” the “ resultant pressure recorder,” the “ plane drop-
per,” the “ component pressure recorder,” the “ dynamometer chrono-
graph,” the “ counterpoised eccentric plane,” and the “ rolling car-
riage,” all illustrated in the paper under discussion, and with these
made many experiments.
“The most important general inference from these experiments, as
a whole, is that, so far as the mere power to sustain heavy bodies in
the air by mechanical flight goes, such mechanical flight is possible with
engines we now possess, since effective steam-engines have lately been
built weighing less than 10 pounds to one horse-power, and the experi-
ments show that if we multiply the small planes which have been
actually used, or assume a larger plane to have approximately the
properties of similar small ones, one horse-power rightly applied, can
sustaill Over 200 pounds in the air at a horizontal velocity of over
20 meters per second (about 45 miles an hour), and still more at still
higher velocities. These numerical values are contained in the fol-
lowing table, repeated from p. 66. It is scarcely necessary to observe
that the planes have been designedly loaded, till they weighed 500
grammes each, and that such a system, if used for actual flight, need
weigh but a small fraction of this amount, leaving the rest of the sus-
tainable weight indicated, disposable for engines and other purposes.
I have found in experiment that surfaces approximately plane and of
1/to this weight are sufficiently strong for all necessary purposes of
support.
€
‘
“Data for soaring of 30 X 4.8 inch planes; weight, 500 grammes
Weight with planes of
like form that 1
horse-power will drive
Soaring speed V : Work expended through the air at
Angle I per minute velocity V
with Meters Feet aoe eS
horizon per per Kilogram- Foot- Kilo-
a second second meters pounds grammes Pounds
45 D2 26.7 336 2,434 6.8 15
30 10.6 34.8 175 1,268 13.0 29
15 ee? 30.7 86 623 20.5 58
10 12.4 40.7 65 474 34.8 77
5 15.2 49.8 41 207 55.5 122
2 20.0 65.6 24 174 95.0 209
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
‘“T am not prepared to say that the relations of power, area, weight,
and speed, here experimentally established for planes of small area,
will hold for indefinitely large ones ; but from all the circumstances of
experiment, I can entertain no doubt that they do so hold far enough
to afford assurance that we can transport (with fuel for a considerable
journey and at speeds high enough to make us independent of ordinary
winds), weights many times greater than that of a man.
‘In this mode of supporting a body in the air, its specific
gravity, instead of being as heretofore a matter of primary impor-
tance, is a matter of indifference, the support being derived essen-
tially from the inertia and elasticity of the air on which the body is
made to rapidly run. The most important and it is believed novel
truth, already announced, immediately follows from what has been
shown, that whereas in land or marine transport increased speed is
maintained only by a disproportionate expenditure of power, within
the limits of experiment in such aerial horizontal transport, the higher
speeds are more economical of power than the lower ones.
‘While calling attention to these important and as yet little known
truths, I desire to add as a final caution, that I have not asserted
that planes such as are here employed in experiment, or even that
planes of any kind, are the best forms to use in mechanical flight, and
that I have also not asserted, without qualification, that mechanical
flight is practically possible, since this involves questions as to the
method of constructing the mechanism, of securing its safe ascent and
descent, and also of securing the indispensable condition for the eco-
nomic use of the power I have shown to be at our disposal—the con-
dition, I mean, of our ability to guide it in the desired horizontal
direction during transport—questions which, in my opinion, are only
to be answered by further experiment and which belong to the in-
choate art or science of aerodromics on which I do not enter.
““T wish, however, to put on record my belief that the time has
come for these questions to engage the serious attention, not only of
engineers, but of all interested in the possibly near practical solution
of a problem, one of the most important in its consequences, of any
which has ever presented itself in mechanics; for this solution, it is
here shown, cannot longer be considered beyond our capacity to reach.”
The data secured by these experiments have long since been super-
seded by more accurate observations in modern wind tunnels. Even
the conclusions would not now all be considered sound. For instance,
“Langley’s law,” that the more rapid the horizontal flight the less is
the power required for support and advance, does not hold for speeds
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT Al
much higher than those he tried. His assumption that skin friction is
negligible is also invalid at higher speeds. But a great impetus to
aviation was given by the fact that so great a scientist as Langley had
devoted himself to a subject which was generally regarded then as
the refuge of cranks, nearly in the same class with perpetual motion.
Langley’s meditations on soaring flight of birds led in 1893 to his
brilliant paper :
“THE INTERNAL WORK OF THE WIND”
“Tt has long been observed that certain species of birds maintain
themselves indefinitely in the air by ‘ soaring,’ without any flapping
of the wing, or any motion other than a slight rocking of the body;
and this, although the body in question is many hundred times denser
than the air in which it seems to float with an undulating movement,
as on the waves of an invisible stream.
“No satisfactory mechanical explanation of this anomaly has been
given, and none would be offered in this connection by the writer,
were he not satisfied that it involves much more than an ornithological
problem, and that it points to novel conclusions of mechanical and
utilitarian importance. They are paradoxical at first sight, since they
imply that, under certain specified conditions, very heavy bodies en-
tirely detached from the earth, immersed in, and free to move in, the
air, can be sustained there indefinitely, without any expenditure of
energy from within.
“ These bodies may be entirely of mechanical construction, as will
be seen later, but for the present we will continue to consider the
character of the invisible support of the soaring bird, and to study its
motions, though only as a pregnant instance offered by Nature to
show that a rational solution of the mechanical problem is possible.
“Recurring, then, to the illustration just referred to, we may ob-
serve that the flow of an ordinary river would afford no explanation
of the fact that nearly inert creatures, while free to move, although
greatly denser than the fluid, yet float upon it; which is what we
actualiy behold in the aerial stream, since the writer, like others, has
satisfied himself, by repeated observation, that the soaring vultures
and other birds appear as if sustained by some invisible support, in
the stream of air, sometimes for at least a considerable fraction of
an hour. It is frequently suggested by those who know these facts
only from books, that there must be some quivering of the wings, so
rapid as to escape observation. Those who do know them from obser-
vation, are aware that it is absolutely certain that nothing of the kind
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
takes place, and that the birds sustain themselves on pinions which
are quite rigid and motionless, except for a rocking or balancing move-
ment involving little energy.
“The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to that most
conscientious observer, M. Mouillard,” who has described these ac-
tions of the soaring birds with incomparable vividness and minute-
ness, and who asserts that they, under certain circumstances, without
flapping their wings, rise and actually advance against the wind.
“To the writer, who has himself been attracted from his earliest
years to the mystery which has surrounded this action of the soaring
bird, it has been a subject of continual surprise that it has attracted so
little attention from physicists. That nearly inert bodies, weighing
from 5 to 10, or even more, pounds, and many hundred times denser
than the air, should be visibly suspended in it above our heads, some-
times for hours at a time, and without falling—this, it might seem,
is, without misuse of language to be called a physical miracle ; and yet,
the fact that those whose province it is to investigate nature, have
hitherto seldom thought it deserving attention, is perhaps the greater
wonder.
“| The common ‘Turkey Buzzard’ (Cathartes aura) 1s so
plenty around the environs of Washington that there is rarely a time
when some of them may not be seen in the sky, gliding in curves over
some attractive point, or, more rarely moving in nearly straight lines on
rigid wings, if there be a moderate wind. On the only occasion when
the motion of one near at hand could be studied in a very high wind,
the author was crossing the long ‘Aqueduct Bridge ’ over the Potomac,
in an unusually violent November gale, the velocity of the wind being
probably over 35 miles an hour. About one-third of the distance from
the right bank of the river, and immediately over the right parapet
of the bridge, at a height of not over 20 yards, was one of these
buzzards, which, for some object which was not evident, chose to
keep over this spot, where the gale, undisturbed by any surface irregu-
larities swept directly up the river with unchecked violence. In this
aerial torrent, and apparently indifferent to it, the bird hung, gliding,
in the usual manner of its species, round and round in a small oval
curve whose major axis (which seemed toward the wind) was not
longer than twice its height from the water. The bird was therefore
at all times in close view. It swung around repeatedly, rising and fall-
ing slightly in its course, while keeping, as a whole, on one level, and
over the same place, moving with a slight swaying both in front and
*L. P. Mouillard, L’Empire de 1’Air, Paris: 6. Masson.
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 43
lateral direction but in such an effortless way as suggested a lazy yield-
ing of itself to the rocking of some invisible wave.
“Tt may be asserted that there was not only no flap of the wing,
but not the quiver of a wing feather visible to the closest scrutiny,
during the considerable time the bird was under observation, and dur-
ing which the gale continued. A record of this time was not kept, but
it at any rate lasted until the writer, chilled by the cold blast, gave up
watching and moved away, leaving the bird still floating, about at
the same height in the torrent of air, in nearly the same circle, and
with the same aspect of indolent repose.
“Light came to him through one of those accidents which are
commonly found to occur when the mind is intent on a particular sub-
ject, and looking everywhere for a clue to its solution.
“Tn 1887, while engaged with the ‘whirling-table’ in the open
air at the Allegheny Observatory, he had chosen a quiet afternoon for
certain experiments, but in the absence of the entire calm which is
almost never realized, had placed one of the very small and light
anemometers made for hospital use, in the open air, with the object
of determining and allowing for the velocity of what feeble breeze
existed. His attention was called to the extreme irregularity of this
register, and he assumed at first that the day was more unfavorable
than he had supposed. Subsequent observations, however, showed
that when the anemometer was sufficiently light and devoid of inertia,
the register always showed great irregularity, especially when its
movements were noted, not from minute to minute, but from second
to second.
“ His attention once aroused to these anomalies, he was led to reflect
upon their extraordinary importance in a possible mechanical applica-
tion. He then designed certain special apparatus hereafter described,
and made observations with it which showed that ‘ wind’ in general
was not what it is commonly assumed to be, that is, air put in motion
with an approximately uniform velocity in the same strata; but that,
considered in the narrowest practicable sections, wind was always not
only not approximately uniform, but variable and irregular in its
movements beyond anything which had been anticipated, so that it
seemed probable that the very smallest part observable could not be
treated as approximately homogeneous, but that even here, there was
an internal motion to be considered, distinct both from that of the
whole body, and from its immediate surroundings. It seemed to the
5
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
writer to follow as a necessary consequence, that there might be a
potentiality of what may be called ‘internal work’ ” in the wind.
“On further study it seemed to him that this internal work might
conceivably be so utilized as to furnish a power which should not
only keep an inert body from falling, but cause it to rise, and that
while this power was the probable cause of the action of tle soaring
bird, it might be possible through its means to cause any suitably dis-
posed body, animate or inanimate, wholly immersed in the wind, and
wholly free to move, to advance against the direction of the wind
itself. By this it is not meant that the writer then devised means for
doing this but that he then attained the conviction both that such an
action involved no contradiction of the laws of motion, and that it
was mechanically possible (however difficult it might be to realize the
exact mechanism by which this might be accomplished ).”
He then goes on with experiments made with extremely light and
sensitive anemometers to show that the apparently continuous flow of
a wind is in reality made up of an extreme contrariety of gusts,
capable, if they could be taken advantage of, not only of supporting
a body in air, but even of causing it to rise and advance against the
general direction of the wind.
“From this, then, we may now at least see that it is plainly within
the capacity of an intelligence like that suggested by Maxwell, and
which Lord Kelvin has called the ‘ Sorting Demon,’ to pick out from
the internal motions those whose direction is opposed to the main cur-
rent, and to omit those which are not so, and thus without the expen-
diture of energy to construct a force which will act against the main
current itself.
“ But we may go materially further, and not only admit that it
is not necessary to invoke here, as Maxwell has done in the case of
thermodynamics, a being having a power and rapidity of action far
above ours, but that, in actual fact, a being of a lower order than
ourselves, guided only by instinct may so utilize these internal motions.
“We might not indeed have conceived this possible, were it not
that nature has already, to a large extent, exhibited it before our eyes
in the soaring bird, which sustains itself endlessly in the air with nearly
‘
* Since the term “internal work” is often used in thermo-dynamics to signify
molecular action, it may be well to observe that it here refers not to molecular
movements, but to pulsations of sensible magnitude, always existing in the wind,
as will be shown later, and whose extent and extraordinary possible mechanical
importance it is the object of this research to illustrate. The term is so significant
of the author’s meaning that he permits himself the use of it here, in spite of the
possible ambiguity.
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 45
motionless wings, for without this evidence of the possibility of action
which now ceases to approach the inconceivable, we are not likely,
even if admitted its theoretical possibility, to have thought the mecha-
nism solution of this problem possible. But although to show how
this physical miracle of nature is to be imitated, completely and in
detail, may be found to transcend any power of analysis, I hope to
show, that this may be possible without invoking the asserted power
of ‘Aspiration’ relative to curved surfaces, or the trend of upward cur-
rents, and even to indicate the probability that the mechanical solu-
tion of this problem may not be beyond human skill.
“ Let me resume the leading points of the present memoir in the
statement that it has been shown:
“(1) That the wind is not even an approximately uniform moving
mass of air, but consists of a succession of very brief pulsations of
varying amplitude, and that, relatively to the mean movement of the
wind, these are of varying direction.
“(2) That it is pointed out that hence there is a potentiality of
‘internal work’ in the wind, and probably of a very great amount.
“(3) That it involves no contradiction of known principles to de-
clare that an inclined plane or suitably curved surface, heavier than
the air, freely immersed in, and moving with the velocity of the mean
wind, can, if the wind pulsations here described are of sufficient ampli-
tude and frequency, be sustained or even raised indefinitely without
expenditure of internal energy, other than that which is involved in
changing the aspect of its inclination at each pulsation.
(4) That since (A) such a surface, having also power to change
its inclination, must gain energy through falling during the slower,
and expend energy by rising during the higher, velocities; and that
(B) since it has been shown that there is no contradiction of known
mechanical laws in assuming that the surface may be sustained or
may continue to rise indefinitely, the mechanical possibility of some
advance against the direction of the wind follows immediately from
this capacity of rising. It is further seen that it is at least possible
that this advance against the wind may not only be attained relatively
to the position of a body moving with the speed of the mean wind,
but absolutely, and with reference to a fixed point in space.
“ (5) The statement is made that this is not only mechanically
possible; but that, in the writer’s opinion, it is realizable in practice.
‘The final application of these principles to the art of aerodromics
seems then to be that, while it is not likely that the perfected aerodrome
46 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
will ever be able to dispense altogether with the ability to rely at inter-
vals on some internal source of power, it will not be indispensable
that this aerodrome of the future shall, in order to go any distance—
even to circumnavigate the globe without alighting,—need to carry a
weight of fuel which would enable it to perform this journey under
conditions analogous to those of a steamship, but that the fuel and
weight need only be such as to enable it to take care of itself in
exceptional moments of calm.”
How plainly here does Langley foreshadow the achievements of
gliding a third of a century later.
After completing the two papers just referred to, Langley pro-
ceeded to use the data gained in a serious attempt to obtain mechanical
flight with large heavier-than-air machines. After several years of
experimentation in which not only the difficulties of light construc-
tion and automatic balance but also of the invention of a very light
steam engine were overcome, Langley on May 6, 1806, in the presence
of Alexander Graham Bell and others, successfully catapulted from a
houseboat on the Potomac a 13-foot steam-powered model which flew
over one-half mile and landed softly unharmed upon the water. In
November of the same year, another large model made an even longer
flight of three-quarters of a mile. Of these experiments Langley
said 2":
“T have thus far had only a purely scientific interest in the results
of these labors. Perhaps if it could have been foreseen at the outset
how much labor there was to be, how much of life would be given to
it, and how much care, I might have hesitated to enter upon it at all.
And now reward must be looked for, if reward there be, in the knowl-
edge that I have done the best I could in a difficult task, with results
which it may be hoped will be useful to others. I have brought to
a close the portion of the work which seemed to be specially mine—
the demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight—and for
the next stage, which is the commercial and practical development of
the idea, it is probable that the world may look to others. The world,
indeed, will be supine if it do not realize that a new possibility has
come to it, and that the great universal highway overhead is now soon
to be opened.”
“EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LANGLEY AERODROME”
‘The experiments undertaken by the Smithsonian Institution upon
an aerodrome, or flying machine, capable of carrying a man have been
The Langley Aerodrome, Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1900, p. 197, 1901.
9681 °*9 AVW ‘LHDITA NI G ‘ON TSGOW ASZISNV
G “Id ‘8 "ON ‘26 “10A SNOILO31100 SNOANVIIFOSIN NVINOSHLIWS
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 47
suspended from lack of funds to repair defects in the launching
apparatus without the machine ever having been in the air at all. As
these experiments have been popularly, and of late repeatedly, rep-
resented as having failed on the contrary, because the aerodrome could
not sustain itself in the air I have decided to give this brief though
late account, which may be accepted as the first authoritative state-
ment of them.
“Tt will be remembered that in 1896 wholly successful flights of
between one-half and one mile by large steam-driven models, unsup-
ported except by the mechanical effects of steam engines, had been
made by me. In all these the machine was first launched into the
air from ‘ways,’ somewhat as a ship is launched into the water,
the machine resting on a car that ran forward on these ways, which
fell down at the extremity of the car’s motion, releasing the aero-
drome for its free flight. I mention these details because they are
essential to an understanding of what follows, and partly because their
success led me to undertake the experiments on a much larger scale
I now describe.
“In the early part of 1898 a board, composed of officers of the
Army and Navy, was appointed to investigate these past experi-
ments with a view to determining just what had been accomplished
and what the possibilities were of developing a large-size man-carrying
machine for war purposes. The report of this board being fav-
orable, the Board of Ordnance and Fortification of the War Depart-
ment decided to take up the matter, and I having agreed to give
without compensation what time I could spare from official duties,
the Board allotted $50,000 for the development, construction, and
test of a large aerodrome, half of which sum was to be available
immediately and the remainder when required. The whole matter
had previously been laid before the Board of Regents of the Smith-
sonian Institution who had authorized me to take up the work and
to use in connection with it such facilities of the Institution as were
available.
“ Before consenting to undertake the construction of this large
machine, I had fully appreciated that owing to theoretical considera-
tions, into which I do not enter, it would need to be relatively
lighter than the smaller one; and later it was so constructed, each
foot of sustaining surface in the large machine carrying nearly the
same weight as each foot in the model. The difficulties subsequently
experienced with the larger machine were, then, due not to this
cause, but to practical obstacles connected with the launching, and the
like.
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
“ T had also fully appreciated the fact that one of the chief difficul-
ties in its construction would lie in the procuring of a suitable engine
of sufficient power and, at the same time, one which was light enough.
(The models had been driven by steam engines whose water supply
weighed too much for very long flights.) The construction of the
steam engine is well understood, but now it would become necessary
to replace this by gas engines, which for this purpose involve novel
difficulties. I resolved not to attempt the task of constructing the
engine myself, and had accordingly entered into negotiations with
the best engine builders in this country, and after long delay had
finally secured a contract with a builder who, of all persons engaged
in such work, seemed most likely to achieve success. It was only
after this contract for the engine had been signed that I felt willing
to formally undertake the work of building the aerodrome.
“ The contract with the engine builder called for an engine develop-
ing 12 brake horsepower, and weighing not more than 100 pounds,
including cooling water and all other accessories, and with the proviso
that a second engine, exactly like this first one, would be furnished on
the same terms. The first engine was to be delivered before the close
of February, 1899, and the frame of the aerodrome with sustaining
surfaces, propellers, shafting, rudders, etc., was immediately planned,
and now that the engine was believed to be secured, their actual con-
struction was pushed with the utmost speed. The previous experi-
ments with steam-driven models which had been so successful, had
been conducted over the water, using a small houseboat having a cabin
for storing the machine, appliances and tools, on top of which was
mounted a track and car for use in launching. As full success in
launching these working models had been achieved after several
years spent in devising, testing and improving this plan, I decided
to follow the same method with the large machine, and accordingly
designed and had built a house boat, in which the machine could not
only be stored, but which would also furnish space for workshops,
and on the top of which was mounted a turntable and track for use
in launching from whatever direction the wind might come.
“ Everything connected with the work was expedited as much as
possible with the expectation of being able to have the first trial
flight before the close of 1899, and time and money had been spent
on the aerodrome, which was ready, except for its engine, when the
time for the delivery of this arrived. But now the builder proved
unable to complete his contract, and, after months of delay, it was
necessary to decrease the force at work on the machine proper and
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 49
its launching appliances until some assurance could be had of the
final success of the engine. ... .
“Tt was recognized from the very beginning that it would be desir-
able in a large machine to use ‘superposed’ sustaining surfaces
(that is, with one wing above another) on account of their supe-
riority so far as the relation of strength to weight is concerned,
and from their independence of guy wiring; and two sets of super-
posed sustaining surfaces of different patterns were built and experi-
mented with in the early tests. These surfaces proved, on the whole,
inferior in lifting power, though among compensating advantages
are the strength of a bridge construction which dispenses with guy
wires coming up from below, which, in fact, later were the cause of
disaster in the launching.
“Tt was finally decided to follow what experiment had shown to be
successful, and to construct the sustaining surfaces for the large
machine after the ‘ single-tier’ plan. This proved to be no easy task,
since in the construction of the surfaces for the small machines the
main and cross ribs of the framework had been made solid, and,
after steaming, bent and dried to the proper curvature, while it was
obvious that this plan could not be followed in the large surfaces on
account of the necessity, already alluded to, of making them rela-
tively lighter than the small ones, which were already very light.
After the most painstaking construction, and tests of various sizes
and thicknesses of hollow square, hollow round, I-beam, channel, and
many other types of ribs, I finally devised a type which consisted of
a hollow box form, having its sides of tapering thickness, with the
thickest part at the point midway between contiguous sides and with
small partitions placed inside every few inches in somewhat the same
way that nature places them in the bamboo. These various parts
of the rib (corresponding to the quill in a wing) were then glued and
clamped together, and after drying were reduced to the proper dimen-
sions and the ribs covered with several coats of a special marine
varnish, which it had been found protected the glued joints from
softening, even when they were immersed in water for twenty-four
hours.
“Comparative measurements were made between these large cross
ribs, 11 feet long, and a large quill from the wing of a harpy eagle,
which is probably one of the greatest wonders that nature has pro-
duced in the way of strength for weight. These measurements
showed that the large, 11-foot ribs (‘ quills’) for the sustaining sur-
faces of the large machine were equally as strong, weight for weight,
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
as the quill of the eagle; but much time was consumed in various
constructions and tests before such a result was finally obtained.
“ During this time a model of the large machine, one-fourth of its
linear dimensions, was constructed, and a second contract was made
for an engine for it. The delay with the large engine was repeated
with the small one, and in the spring of 1900 it was found that both
contract engines were failures for the purpose for which they were
intended, as neither one developed half of the power required for the
allotted weight.
“TI accordingly again searched all over this country, and, finally,
accompanied by an engineer (Mr. Manly), whose services I had
engaged, went to Europe, and there personally visited large builders
of engines for automobiles, and attempted to get them to undertake
the construction of such an engine as was required. This search, how-
ever, was fruitless, as all of the foreign builders, as well as those of
this country, believed it impossible to construct an engine of the neces-
sary power and as light as I required (less than Io pounds to the
horsepower without fuel or water). I was therefore forced to return
to this country and to consent most reluctantly, even at this late date,
to have the work of constructing suitable engines undertaken in the
shops of the Smithsonian Institution, since, as I have explained, the
aerodrome frame and wings were already constructed. This work
upon the engines began here in August, 1900, in the immediate care
of Mr. Manly. These engines were to be of nearly double the power
first estimated and of little more weight, but this increased power and
the strain caused by it demanded a renewal of the frame as first built,
in a stronger and consequently in a heavier form, and the following
sixteen months were spent in such a reconstruction simultaneously
with the work on the engines.
“The flying weight of the machine complete, with that of the
aeronaut, was 830 pounds; its sustaining surface, 1,040 square feet.
It therefore was provided with slightly greater sustaining surface
and materially greater relative horsepower than the model subse-
quently described which flew successfully. The brake horsepower
of the engine was 52; the engine itself, without cooling water, or
fuel, weighed approximately 1 kilogram to the horsepower. The en-
tire power plant, including cooling water, carburetor, battery, etc.,
weighed materially less than 5 pounds to the horsepower. Engines
for both the large machine and the quarter-size model were completed
before the close of 1901, and they were immediately put in their
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 5!
respective frames and tests of them and their power-transmission
appliances were begun.
“The engines themselves were successfully completed before the
close of 1901, and were of much more power than those originally
designed ; but nearly a year and a half had been spent not only in their
completion, but in properly coordinating the various parts of the
frame carrying them, repairing the various breakages, assembling, dis-
mounting, and reassembling the various parts of the appliances, and
in general rebuilding the frame and appurtenances to correspond in
strength to the new engines.
“ There are innumerable other details, for the whole question is one
Otidetails:y 2" ls 2
“It is impossible for anyone who has not had experience with such
matters to appreciate the great amount of delay which experience
has shown is to be expected in such experiments. Only in the spring
of 1903, and after two unforeseen years of assiduous labor, were
these new engines and their appurtenances, weighing altogether less
than 5 pounds to the horsepower and far lighter than any known to
be then existing, so coordinated and adjusted that successive shop
tests could be made without causing injury to the frame, its bearings,
shafts, or propellers.
“And now everything seemed to be as nearly ready for an experi-
ment as could be, until the aerodrome was at the location at which
the experiments were to take place. The large machine and its
quarter-size counterpart were accordingly placed on board the large
house boat, which had been completed some time before and had been
kept in Washington as an auxiliary shop for use in the construction
work, and the whole outfit was towed to a point in the Potomac
River, here 3 miles wide, directly opposite Widewater, Va., and
about 40 miles below Washington and midway between the Mary-
land and Virginia shores, where the boat was made fast to moorings
which had previously been placed in readiness for it.
“Although extreme delays had already occurred, yet they were not
so trying as the ones which began immediately after the work was
thus transferred to the lower Potomac.
“In order to test the quarter-size model it was necessary to remove
its launching track from the top of the small house boat and place it
upon the deck of the large boat, in order to have all the work go on
at one place, as it was impossible, on account of its unseaworthiness,
to moor the small house boat in the middle of the river.
52 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
«These difficulties might have partly been anticipated, but
there were others concerning which the cause of the deterioration and
disarrangement of certain parts and adjustments was not immediately
detected, and consequently when short preliminary shop tests of the
small machine were attempted just prior to launching it, it was found
that the apparatus did not work properly, necessitating repairs and
new constructions and consequent delay. Although the large house
boat with the entire outfit had been moved down the river on July 14,
1903, it was not until the 8th of August that the test of the quarter-size
model was made, and all of this delay was directly due to changed
atmospheric conditions incident to the change in locality. This test of
the model in actual flight was made on the 8th of August, 1903, when
it worked most satisfactorily, the launching apparatus, as always here-
tofore, performing perfectly, while the model, being launched directly
into the face of the wind, flew directly ahead on an even keel. The
balancing proved to be perfect, and the power, supporting surface,
euiding, and equilibrium-preserving effects of the rudder also. The
weight of the model was 58 pounds, its sustaining surface 66 square
feet, and the horsepower from 23 to 3.
“ This was the first time in history, so far as 1 know, that a success-
ful flight of a mechanically sustained flying machine was made in
public.
“ T have spoken of the serious delays in the test of the small machine
caused by changed atmospheric conditions, but they proved to be
almost negligible compared with what was later experienced with
the large one. .)-...
Samrat hag Something of the same troubles which had been met
with in the disarrangement of the adjustments of the small engine
was experienced in the large one, although they occurred in such a
different way that they were not detected until they had caused
damage in the tests, and these disarrangements were responsible for
broken propellers, twisted shafts, crushed bearings, distorted frame-
work, etc., which were not finally overcome until the Ist of October.
After again getting everything in apparent readiness there then
ensued a period of waiting on the weather until the 7th of October
(1903), when it became sufficiently quiet for a test which I was now
beginning to fear could not be made before the following season. In
this, the first test, the engineer took his seat, the engine started with
ease and was working without vibration at its full power of over
50 horse, and the word being given to launch the machine, the car
No. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 53
was released and the aerodrome sped along the track. Just as the
machine left the track, those who were watching it, among whom
were two representatives of the Board of Ordnance,” noticed that the
machine was jerked violently down at the front (being caught, as
it subsequently appeared, by the falling ways),” and under the full
power of its engine was pulled into the water, carrying with it its
engineer. When the aerodrome rose to the surface it was found,
that while the front sustaining surfaces had been broken by their
impact with the water, yet the rear ones were comparatively unin-
jured. As soon as a full examination of the launching mechanism
had been made, it was found that the front portion of the machine
had caught on the launching car, and that the guy post, to which were
fastened the guy wires which are the main strength of the front
surfaces, had been bent to a fatal extent.
“The machine, then, had never been free in the air, but had been -
pulled down as stated.
“The disaster just briefly described had indefinitely postponed the
test, but this was not all. As has been said before, the weather had
become very cold and the so-called equinoctial storms being near it
was decided to remove the house boat at the earliest time possible,
but before it could be done, a storm came up and swept away ail the
launches, boats, rafts, etc., and in doing so completely demolished the
greater part of them, so that when the house boat was finally removed
to Washington, on the 15th of October, these appurtenances had to be
replaced. It is necessary to remember that these long series of delays
worked other than mere scientific difficulties, for a more important
and more vital one was the exhaustion of the financial means for the
work.
“Immediately upon getting the boat to Washington the labor of
constructing new sustaining surfaces was begun, and they were com-
pleted about the close of November. It was proposed to make a
* Major Macomb, of the Board of Ordnance, states in his report to the Board,
that “the trial was unsuccessful because the front guy post caught in its support
on the launching car and was not released in time to give free flight, as was
intended, but, on the contrary, caused the front of the machine to be dragged
downward, bending the guy post and making the machine plunge into the water
about 50 yards in front of the house boat.”
* This instantaneous photograph, taken from the boat itself and hitherto un-
published, shows the aerodrome in motion before it had actually cleared the
house boat. On the left is seen a portion of a beam, being a part of the falling
ways in which the front wing was caught, while the front wing itself is seen
twisted, showing that the accident was in progress before the aerodrome was
free to fly.
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
second attempt near the city, though in the meantime the ice had
formed in the river. However, on the 8th of December, 1903, the
atmosphere became very quiet shortly before noon and an immediate
attempt was made at Arsenal Point, quite near Washington, though
the site was unfavorable. Shortly after arriving at the selected point
everything was in readiness for the test. In the meantime the wind
had arisen and darkness was fast approaching, but as the funds for
continuing the work were exhausted, rendering it impossible to wait
until spring for more suitable weather for making a test, it was decided
to go on with it if possible. This time there were on hand to witness
the test the writer, members of the Board of Ordnance, and a few
other guests, to say nothing of the hundreds of spectators who were
waiting on the various wharves and shores. It was found impossible to
moor the boat without a delay which would mean that no test could
be made on account of darkness, so that it was held as well as possible
by a tug, and kept with the aerodrome pointing directly into the wind,
though the tide, which was running very strong, and the wind, which
was blowing 10 miles an hour, were together causing much difficulty.
The engine being started and working most satisfactorily, the order
was given by the engineer to release the machine, but just as it was
leaving the track another disaster, again due to the launching ways,
occurred” This time the rear of the machine, in some way still unex-
plained, was caught by a portion of the launching car, which caused the
rear sustaining surfaces to break, leaving the rear entirely without sup-
port, and it came down almost vertically into the water. Dark-
ness had come before the engineer, who had been in extreme danger,
could aid in the recovery of the aerodrome, the boat and machine
had drifted apart, and one of the tugs, in its zeal to render assis-
tance, had fastened a rope to the frame of the machine in the reverse
position from what it should have been attached and had broken the
frame entirely in two. While the injury which had thus been caused
seemed almost irreparable to one not acquainted with the work, yet
it was found upon close examination that only a small amount of
labor would be necessary in order to repair the frame, the engine
*” Major Macomb again states in his official report to the Board) he
launching car was released at 4.45 p. m..... The car was set in motion and
the propellers revolved rapidly, the engine working perfectly, but there was
something wrong with the launching. The rear guy post seemed to drag, bring-
ing the rudder down on the launching ways, and a crashing, rending sound, fol-
lowed by the collapse of the rear wings, showed that the machine had been
wrecked in the launching; just how it was impossible to see.”
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no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY—ABBOT 55
itself being entirely uninjured. Had this accident occurred at an
earlier period, when there were funds available for continuing the
experiments, it would not have been so serious, for many accidents
in shop tests had occurred which, while unknown to the general pub-
lic, had yet caused greater damage and required more time for repair
than in the present case. But the funds for continuing the work were
exhausted, and it being found impossible to immediately secure
others for continuing it, it was found necessary to discontinue the
experiments for the present, though I decided to use, from a private
fund, the small amount of money necessary to repair the frame so that
it itself, together with its engine, which was entirely uninjured, might
be available for further use if it should later prove possible, and
that they themselves might be in proper condition to attest to what
they really represent as an engineering achievement.
“Entirely erroneous impressions have been given by the account
of these experiments in the public press, from which they have been
judged, even by experts; the impression being that the machine could
not sustain itself in flight. It seems proper, then, to emphasize
and to reiterate, with a view to what has just been said, that the
machine has never had a chance to fly at all, but that, the failure
occurred on its launching ways; and the question of its ability to fly
is consequently, as yet, an untried one.
“ There have, then, been no failures as far as the actual test of the
flying capacity of the machine is concerned, for it has never been
free in the air at all. The failure of the financial means for continu-
ing these expensive experiments has left the question of their result
where it stood before they were undertaken, except that it has been
demonstrated that engines can be built, as they have been, of little
over one-half the weight that was assigned as the possible minimum
by the best builders of France and Germany; that the frame can be
made strong enough to carry these engines, and that, so far as any
possible prevision can extend, another flight would be successful if
the launching were successful; for in this, and in this alone, as far
as is known, all the trouble has come.
“ The experiments have also given necessary information about this
launching. They have shown that the method which succeeded per-
fectly on a smaller scale is insufficient on a larger one, and they have
indicated that it is desirable that the launching should take place
nearer the surface of the water, either from a track upon the shore
or from a house boat large enough to enable the apparatus to be
launched at any time with the wings extended and perhaps with
56 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
wings independent of support from guys. But the construction of
this new launching apparatus would involve further considerable
expenditures that there are no present means to meet; and this, and
this alone, is the cause of their apparent failure.
“ Failure in the aerodrome itself or its engines there has been none ;
and it is believed that it is at the moment of success, and when the
engineering problems have been solved, that a lack of means has pre-
vented a continuance of the work.”
A regrettable controversy has arisen regarding the capacity of this
machine for flight. As our purpose here is only to recall the work and
attainments of Langley, and as far as possible by his own words,
we may well leave that question as he himself stated it.
Our summary of Langley’s work is far from complete. Such
important papers as “ The Solar and Lunar Spectrum,” “ The Cheap-
est Form of Light,” “ Energy and Vision,” “ Observation of Sudden
Phenomena,” “ Good Seeing,” “The History of a Doctrine,” and
others have been entirely omitted. But space forbids further following
of the steps of this great man except to quote in closing that inimit-
able parable from the final pages of his charming book “ The New
Astronomy ”’:
“T have read somewhere a story about a race of ephemeral insects
who live but an hour. To those who are born in the early morning the
sunrise is the time of youth. They die of old age while its beams
are yet gathering force, and only their descendants live on to midday ;
while it is another race which sees the sun decline, from that which
saw it rise. Imagine the sun about to set, and the whole nation of mites
gathered under the shadow of some mushroom (to them ancient as the
sun itself) to hear what their wisest philosopher has to say of the
gloomy prospect. If I remember aright, he first told them that, in-
credible as it might seem, there was not only a time in the world’s
youth when the mushroom itself was young, but that the sun in those
early ages was in the eastern, not in the western, sky. Since then, he
explained, the eyes of scientific ephemera had followed it, and estab-
lished by induction from vast experience the great ‘Law of Nature,’
that it moved only westward; and he showed that since it was now
nearing the western horizon, science herself pointed to the conclusion
that it was about to disappear forever, together with the great race of
ephemera for whom it was created.
“What his hearers thought of this discourse I do not remember,
but I have heard that the sun rose again the next morning.”
eis
no. 8 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY
ABBOT 57
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(Listed in order quoted in this paper. )
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Tue Tora Sovar Ecuipse oF JULY 29, 1878. OBSERVATIONS AT PIKE’S PEAK,
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THe BoLoMeTeER AND Raprant ENercy. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci.,
vol. 16, pp. 342-358, 1881.
On THE AMOUNT oF THE ATMOSPHERIC ABsorPTION. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3d ser.,
vol. 28, no. 165, pp. 168-170, Sept. 1884.
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vice, no. 15, pp. II, 13-14, 15, 35, 36, U. S. War Dept., 1884.
THE TEMPERATURE OF THE Moon. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 4, pt. 2, 3d. Mem.,
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ANNALS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITU-
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ON TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURES. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 305,
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EXPERIMENTS IN AERODYNAMICS. Smithsonian Contr. Knowl., vol. 27, art. 1,
PP. 3, 5-6, 7, 9, 10, 107-108, 18oT.
Tue INTERNAL Work OF THE WIND. Smithsonian Contr. Knowl., vol. 27, art. 2,
Pp. I-4, 13-14, 22-23, 1803.
Tue LANGLEY AERopROME. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1900, p. 216, 1901.
EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LANGLEY AERopROME. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst.,
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Tue New AstTRONOMY, pp. 250-251. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston and New
York, 1900.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 9
ite SKELETAL MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE
CRAB, CALLINECTES SAPIDUS RATHBUN
BY
DORIS M. COCHRAN
Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians
U. S. National Museum
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(PUBLICATION 3282)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
JANUARY 22, 1935
The Lord Baltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As
”
THE SKELETAL MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB,
CALLINECTES SAPIDUS RATHBUN
By DORIS M. COCHRAN
Assistant Curator, Division of Reptiles and Batrachians
U.S. National Museum
CONTENTS
PAGE
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No.9
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
INTRODUCTION
The need for detailed morphologic study of the muscles of crusta-
ceans is apparent upon making a survey of the very scanty literature
dealing with the myology of so diverse and important a suborder. The
taxonomy and the concurrent analysis of the external anatomy of
crustaceans have received a great deal of attention, and their physio-
logic reactions to stimuli have likewise been given a comparatively
large amount of study. The internal structure and particularly the
myology have been surprisingly neglected.
Huxley (1880) made a now historic contribution in his book on the
crayfish, and his masterly dissections were unequalled for over a quar-
ter of acentury. Then the German school of zoology at Leipzig began
a symposium on the crayfish, and the rechecking of the musculature
was undertaken by Walter Schmidt, who made a most thorough and
scholarly revision, in which he came upon several important points
which Huxley had failed to emphasize.
The next complete myological study of a crustacean was published
by Alfreda Berkeley in 1928. Her study of the shrimp Pandalus
danae was executed in the general manner of Schmidt’s treatment, so
that their two papers are readily comparable.
Several papers by R. J. Daniel have since appeared dealing with
the very complicated abdominal musculature of shrimps, but these
papers have little bearing upon the following study, because the shrimp
and the crab are structurally dissimilar in regard to their abdominal
organization.
I am particularly indebted to R. E. Snodgrass, of the Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine of the United States Department
of Agriculture, for his invaluable assistance and advice in interpreting,
describing, and figuring the muscles of the blue crab, and in comparing
them with those of other arthropods.
I am likewise indebted to Prof. C. J. Pierson, of the Department of
Zoology of the University of Maryland, for many suggestions, and to
Dr. R. V. Truitt, of the same department, for directing my prelimi-
nary survey of other anatomical features of the blue crab.
My sincere thanks are due also to Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, curator
of the division of marine invertebrates of the United States National
Museum, for donating comparative material for dissection and for
making available much of the literature dealing with crustaceans.
The work on the appendages of the blue crab was done in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Maryland.
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 3
PART I. THE MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK AND ITS APPENDAGES
THE TRUNK
The complete fusion of the segments of head and body in the blue
crab has resulted in the disappearance of those intersegmental muscles
which in crustaceans like the shrimp and the crayfish give a high
degree of flexibility to the movements of the body.
The crab’s head and body are encased in a hard, unjointed covering,
which shows no trace whatever of segmentation on its dorsal sur-
face, although ventrally the sternal thoracic segments on which the
basal leg muscles originate are well marked. Of all the extremely
complex and numerous body muscles that one encounters in the shrimp
and crayfish, there is but one, the attractor of the epimera, which finds
a counterpart in the blue crab, where it performs the same function
of holding the gill chamber in its proper relation to the carapace.
While the abdomen of the crayfish and shrimp is extremely pliable
and is much used in swimming, the abdomen of the blue crab, in
the male at least, is apparently progressing toward a condition of par-
tial rigidity, as the third, fourth, and fifth segments are immovably
fused in that sex. This fusion is not yet completely established, how-
ever, as the former segmentation is still partly maintained in its mus-
culature. The female’s abdomen has six distinct segments, all of
which have the muscles well developed. The structure of the hard
parts of the abdomen of the male is such that it can not be extended
behind the body in line with the back, but at most can assume a position
at right angles to the dorsal surface of the body. The abdomen in both
sexes normally lies closely adpressed against the posterior region of
the thorax. In this position, the dorsal part of the abdomen is under-
neath the body and actually ventral in position. In the text, how-
ever, it is described by the term “ dorsal,” applied to that part which
would be uppermost in a normal crustacean abdomen extending back-
ward behind the thorax.
1. Musculus ventralis super ficialis thoraco-abdomunalis (fig. 1 B) —
This muscle arises on the outer posterior surface of the last segment
of the thorax and is inserted on the anterior border of the first abdomi-
nal segment near the midline, where it helps to pull the abdomen
toward the thorax. This is the only trace in the blue crab of the
ventral superficial thoracic muscles, which are so prominent between
the highly movable body segments in both Astacus and Pandalus.’
*In the particular discussion of the muscles, the comparisons made to homolo-
gous parts in the shrimp and crayfish refer only to the species Pandalus danae
and Astacus fluviatilis.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Although this muscle is paired, as are all the other abdominal muscles,
the members of the pair are so closely crowded toward the middle
line that they appear as one median bundle of muscle fibers.
2-6. Musculi ventrales superficiales abdominis (fig. 1 B)—These
muscles are arranged regularly in accordance with the original seg-
mentation of the abdomen in the male, and the fusion of the third,
fourth, and fifth abdominal somites in this sex has evidently not
affected the ventral musculature at all, since the latter is similar in
i205
(ae
————|—-—-—
<_—-fI+1V+V—-———
i SS
eee =
Fic. 1.—Muscles of the abdomen of the male blue crab.
A, dissection of the abdomen from the ventral side to show the dorsal muscles:
7b, small branch of musculus dilatator ani; 8-13, musculi dorsales superficiales
abdominis.
B, dissection of the abdomen from the dorsal side to show the ventral muscles:
I, musculus ventralis superficialis thoraco-abdominis; 2-6, musculi ventrales
superficiales abdominis; 7a, main branch of musculus dilatator ani.
I-VI, abdominal somites 1 through 6; Tn, telson.
both sexes. The muscles of the first pair (2) arise on the membrane
of the anterior border of the first segment and are inserted on the
heavy sclerotized ridge marking the second segment. Each muscle of
the pair splits into several diverging branches, the two inner ones
being practically confluent on the midline. The second (3) and third
(4) pairs are similar to the first. Each muscle of the fourth (5) is
definitely in a single piece, however, and its posterior attachment is
made upon an arrow-shaped cartilagelike thickening of the membrane
in the middle of the segment. The muscles of the fifth and last pair
(6) are likewise undivided, the two muscles lying very close together
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 5
at their origin but diverging toward their insertion upon the outer
walls in the middle of the sixth segment. There is no ventral muscle
connecting the sixth segment with the telson in either sex. The ventral
superficial muscles are much heavier in the female than in the male,
owing no doubt to the fact that the ‘“ locking ”’ device for the male’s
abdomen precludes the necessity for any strong contraction toward the
body. The female, on the other hand, has no such locking device but
must hold the abdomen bent forward under the body or curled around
the egg mass, this position of the abdomen necessitating heavier
muscles.
7 a,b. Musculus dilatator ani (fig. 1 A, B).—The main part of this
muscle arises on a triangular cartilagelike thickening on the ventral
membrane lying between the posterior border of the sixth somite and
the anterior border of the telson. It is inserted ventro-medially by the
side of the anal opening. The small second part arises in the same
cartilagelike thickening on the ventral membrane, and is inserted on
the anterior dorsal wall of the telson. By the contractions of the two
muscles the anus is opened and widened, while the elasticity of the
membrane around the anus opposes them.
8-13. Musculi dorsales superficiales abdominis (fig. 1 A.).—While
Astacus has its first superficial dorsal muscle connecting the thorax
with the abdomen, this muscle does not occur either in Pandalus or in
Callinectes. A very heavy U-shaped membrane connects the first ab-
dominal segment with the thorax in Callinectes, and at the base of this
membrane arises the first pair of dorsal superficial muscles (8), which
thus corresponds to the second pair in Astacus. Each muscle of this
pair is in several parts lying side by side. The next pair (9) arises near
the middle of the second segment behind a heavy sclerotized ridge and
is inserted on the anterior border of the following segment, which in
the male crab represents the complete fusion of the third, fourth, and
fifth abdominal somites. In the center of this fused section there is still,
strange to say, a pair of definite patches of muscle tissue arising on a
heavy ridge, the marks of attachment of which may be seen going
through to the dorsal integument as two slight shallow depressions.
This pair of muscles (numbered “ zo or rr” in the figure) probably
represents either the fourth or fifth pair of dorsal superficial muscles.
It appears to have no function, as the hinge to its somite is entirely
immovable. The adjacent pair of muscles has completely disappeared
in the male. The sixth pair (72) arises some distance within the fused
segment and is inserted on a cartilagelike outgrowth from the anterior
border of the sixth segment. The seventh pair (13) is long and very
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
slender, to correspond to the shape of the male’s abdomen, and is in-
serted on cartilagelike outgrowths emanating from the anterior border
of the telson, which receives all its power of motion from this muscle,
as no flexors of the telson exist in either sex. The female’s dorsal
superficial muscles are like those of the male, except that all six ab-
dominal segments are distinct and hence the full complement of six
pairs of muscles is present and functional. The dorsal muscles serve
to extend the abdomen backward, but as this position of the abdomen
is not habitual in the blue crab, occurring only at the time of mating,
the muscles are very weakly developed.
14. Musculus attractor epimeralis (figs. 12 A, 13 B).—AII that re-
mains of this muscle, extensive in both Astacus and Pandalus, is a small
patch of short muscle fibers uniting the epimeral plates and the cara-
pace, between the metabranchial and the cardiac regions. It extends
only for a short distance from the posterior angle of the first epimeral
plate. It holds the gill chamber in place in the body, beneath the
branchial lobe and the posterior part of the protogastric region, on
which the muscle originates.
THE EYE
The eye of the blue crab is a highly complex organ, which presents
many specializations in its structure and musculature. ‘The shortening
and broadening of the body contour have also been repeated in the
changes that have taken place in the eyes. The crayfish and shrimp,
both with elongate, narrow bodies, have the eyes close together on
short stalks, which project forward in front of the head. The blue
crab, on the other hand, has eyes which project on very long stalks
at right angles to the axis of the body. The middle cylinder (J in
fig. 2), quite distinct and having its own muscles in the crayfish and
shrimp, is completely fused * to the chitinous middle ring in the blue
crab, and the muscles of these parts, formerly separated, are now
forced to interlace in a very constricted area. The second segment, on
the contrary, is immensely elongated in the blue crab. Its proximal part
contains no muscles, but only a deep groove in which lie the blood-
vessels feeding the eye. Ventrally, this part of the segment is separated
from the head by a thin membrane. This membrane thickens consider-
ably toward its distal boundary, and on this membrane the adductor
muscle arises, which is not the case in either the crayfish or the
shrimp. The muscles arising on the distal border of the second seg-
ment, or on the heavy tendinous outgrowths from it, bear much the
? The entire fused structure will hereafter be spoken of as the middle cylinder.
—
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 7
same relations to one another as in the crayfish and shrimp. There
are two branches to the abductor and three to the dorsal retractor, the
result being that the blue crab has excellent control of its eye
movements.
15. Musculus oculi basalis anterior (fig. 2)—This muscle arises
medially on the epistome from a short, curved, movable rod, which
projects first at right angles from the center of the epistome and then
slopes downward and backward over the esophagus and enlarges to
a buttonlike knob. From this knob the muscle runs dorsally and soon
divides into two short but relatively thick branches, which find attach-
ment side by side below the proximal edge of the chitinous middle
19a 25b 23a 20b
Noone: 7
I
19b
Fic. 2—Dorsal dissection of the eye of the blue crab. On the right side the
deeper muscles are exposed.
15, musculus oculi basalis anterior; 76, musculus oculi basalis posterior; 17,
musculus oculi attractor; 78, musculus oculi adductor; roa and z9b, musculus
oculi abductor; 20a, 20b and 20c, musculus oculi retractor dorsalis; 27, musculus
oculi retractor ventralis; 22, musculus oculi retractor lateralis; 23a and 23),
musculus oculi retractor medialis.
I, middle cylinder; JJ, second segment; J//, optic cup.
cylinder which unites the optic peduncles. The distal part of each
peduncle, bearing the retina, is thereby moved forward in a horizontal
plane, so that the eyes are brought slightly nearer together. At the
same time the second joint may be rotated slightly.
16. Musculus oculi basalis posterior (fig. 2).—This muscle arises
on the knoblike part of the supporting rod of the preceding muscle.
It runs unpaired dorsally for a short distance, closely adherent to the
dorsally directed part of the preceding. Then it divides into two very
fine but exceedingly strong branches which diverge slightly as they
continue dorsally between the branches of the anterior basal muscle
to their attachment on the frontal region of the carapace of the head,
where their presence is marked usually by two small indentations.
17. Musculus oculi attractor (fig. 2).—This short compact muscle
arises on the head carapace near its junction with the middle cylinder.
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The muscles of this pair converge slightly before reaching their inser-
tions on a T-shaped infolding of the ventral part of the middle cylin-
der, in front of the attachment of the anterior basal muscle. As this
middle cylinder is cartilagelike and hence somewhat pliable, the attrac-
tor can assist the anterior basal muscle in depressing it and hence in
bringing the solid joints attached to it nearer together. It may likewise
oppose the basal muscle in rotating the second joint.
18. Musculus oculi adductor (fig. 2) This heavy and powerful
but short muscle arises on the thick membrane separating the ventral
part of the second joint from the head. It travels forward and outward
to its insertion along the anterior distal wall of the second segment not
far from the base of the optic cup, which is rotated strongly by its
contraction.
190 a, b. Musculus oculi abductor a and b (fig. 2).—Originating
posteriorly on the heavy membrane which connects the second joint
to the optic cup, the main part (a) of this muscle is inserted on the
posterior wall of the optic cup near to the corneal surface. This is the
largest and heaviest of any of the muscles lying in the cup. The
second branch (b) originates beside the first but juts off at an angle
toward the ventral surface, where it is soon inserted not far from the
proximal border of the optic cup. It is much shorter than the main
branch, from which it is separated near its insertion by the lateral
retractor muscle. Both branches oppose the adductor by pulling the
eye away from the midline and rotating it in the opposite direction.
THE RETRACTOR MUSCLES OF THE EYE
Like the crayfish and shrimp, the blue crab possesses four retractor
muscles, all of which originate on the membrane bordering the distal
edge of the second segment and are inserted on the sides of the
optic cup near the cornea. They bring the cup nearer to the second
segment or rotate it. The insertion of each muscle is marked exter-
nally by a characteristically different texture in the surface of the
optic cup.
20 a-c. Musculus oculi retractor dorsalis a, b, and c (fig. 2).—This
muscle has three branches, all of which arise from a heavy ossiclelike
projection lying in the membrane and originating on the dorsal distal
wall of the second segment. The main branch, the central one of the
three, travels outward to its attachment on the dorsal surface of the
optic cup, where its insertion is marked externally by a small area of
a slightly granular texture different from the smooth surface around it.
The second branch (b) projects forward at right angles to the first
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 9
and is attached on the front wall of the optic cup near its proximal
border. The third branch (c) projects also at right angles but in an
opposite direction to b, and is attached to the posterior wall of the
optic cup near its proximal edge. The three branches taken together
with the ossiclelike piece from which they originate form a cross, and
the attachment at the extremities of the cross produces a mechanical
device of great strength for moving the optic cup dorsally and for
rotating it from side to side.
21. Musculus oculi retractor ventralis (fig. 2).—This is a relatively
small and weak muscle, which arises ventrally in the membrane emanat-
ing from the distal edge of the second segment and is inserted on the
ventral wall midway to the cornea. Since it runs parallel with the
axis of the eye, it cannot act asa rotator. Its only function is to retract
the optic cup.
22. Musculus oculi retractor lateralis (fig. 2).—This muscle origi-
nates in a tendinous structure in the membrane of the posterior ventral
wall of the second segment, and passes diagonally backward and up-
ward between the two parts of the abductor to its insertion on the pos-
terior wall of the optic cup just above the insertion of the shorter
branch of the abductor. It has a strong rotatory function, owing to
its position diagonal to the axis of the eye.
23 a, b. Musculus oculi retractor medialis a and b (fig. 2).—This
muscle has two branches, both of which arise from an exceedingly
heavy ossiclelike projection from the anterior distal wall of the second
segment. The upper branch (a) proceeds straight along the anterior
wall of the optic cup to its attachment not far from the cornea. The
lower branch (b) diverges slightly downward to its attachment on the
anteroventral wall of the optic cup not far forward of the insertion
of the ventral rotator. The medial retractor has the rotatory function
in addition to being a retractor, as its diverging branches testify.
THE APPENDAGES
The problem of choosing names for the various muscles governing
the appendages has proved, to be a very puzzling one, especially in
regard to those muscles governing the mandible, the maxillae, and
the maxillipeds. It is often impossible in the living crab to assign to a
definite one of the many complex muscles surrounding the base of
each appendage a particular motion observed in that part of the ap-
pendage. In the telopodite the case is much simpler, as there are but
two muscles governing each segment, and but two corresponding direc-
tions of motion. In the dissected crab, the many slender muscles con-
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
trolling the various basal parts of the leg are likely to break if enough
tension is put upon them to show in what manner they influence the
distal segments. Even the coarse and heavy muscles on tendons which
do not break cannot invariably be assumed to cause the same motion
in the segment of the stiffened dead tissue that they do in the pliable
living organism. Thus it frequently becomes very difficult to deter-
mine whether a muscle in function is a promotor or an adductor, a
remotor or an abductor. Coupled with this difficulty is the fact that
the crab is so highly specialized away from the ancestral primitive
condition that some of the appendages now lie in a partly reversed
position, and one appendage, the mandible, is completely reversed.
This makes it equally hard to give the muscles positional names accord-
ing to their points of attachment, and there are, besides, so many small
muscles controlling the basal segments that one soon has to resort to
the expedient of giving some of them merely a number, having ex-
hausted the available adjectives descriptive of their locations.
It is possible, however, to divide the muscles according to their place
of origin, all the muscles originating on the carapace being called dorsal
muscles, and those coming from the ventral surface and the sternal
apodemes being referred to as ventral muscles.
Only those segments anterior to the second maxilla have both dorsal
and ventral muscles. The second maxilla and the segments behind it
lack dorsal muscles, but are fully equipped with ventral muscles.
The dorsal and ventral muscles are all extrinsic, meaning that they
originate in the body itself beyond the boundaries of the true appen-
dage. The intrinsic muscles are contained entirely within the appen-
dage itself and control the distal segments of the limb and the flagellum
if one be present.
As far as it has seemed possible to do it, I have followed the nomen-
clature adopted by Schmidt and later by Berkeley, in their respective
anatomical analyses, to facilitate comparison between the three forms
involved. The muscles of the blue crab do not always present perfect
analogies in either position or function to those of the crayfish and the
shrimp, however, and where a difference in function seems possible,
the positional name may be given as first choice, with Schmidt’s or
Berkeley’s corresponding name in synonymy. When so many muscles
were found that the positional name of the one in question could not be
given with the use of only one or two qualifying adjectives, the whole
muscle has been referred to merely by its number. It is not well to be
too arbitrary in assigning definite names to some of the more obscure
muscles of the blue crab until such time as other representatives of the
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN ie
order Decapoda shall have been dissected and compared carefully,
muscle by muscle. It is quite possible that other genera of crabs may
show up interrelationships of muscles that are quite obscure in
Callinectes.
THE FIRST ANTENNA (ANTENNULE)
In the blue crab this appendage is similar to that of the shrimp and
of the crayfish in regard to its high degree of flexibility. The compara-
tively large size of the first segment is due to the presence of a large
statocyst to which no muscles are attached, these tissues being entirely
sensory in function. The structure of the two flagella in the shrimp
| \ ie
4b 24a 26 28 25a ob
Fic. 3—Dorsal dissection of the first antenna of the blue crab with the deeper
muscles laid bare on the right side.
24a and 24b, musculus promotor I antennae; 25a and 25b, musculus remotor
I antennae; 26, musculus productor. I antennae; 27, musculus reductor, I
antennae ; 28, musculus adductor. I antennae; 29, musculus abductor: I antennae;
30, musculus productor; I antennae; 37, musculus reductor; I antennae; 32,
musculus reductor: I antennae.
St, statocyst.
and crayfish, as well as in the blue crab, does not give any support to
Huxley’s opinion that these flagella represent an endopodite and an
exopodite, nor can the joint from which they arise be considered as a
modified basipodite.
24 a, b. Musculus promotor a and b I antennae (fig. 3).—This
muscle originates in two places on the posterior border of the aperture
that connects the interior of the body with the interior of the antennule.
Both parts are attached close together on an infolding of the mem-
brane lying beneath the statocyst chamber in the first joint. The
promotor raises the first joint, bringing it toward the midline and
rotating it slightly in its socket.
25 a,b. Musculus remotor a and b I antennae (fig. 3).—One part of
this short but heavy muscle arises on a round cartilaginous disk on
IZ SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
the lateral edge of the aperture connecting body and antennule. It is
attached to a tendon on the outer dorsal part of the first joint. The
other branch of the remotor arises on the outer anterior border of the
aperture, and runs to its attachment on the opposite side of the tendon
to which the first branch goes. Both remotors pull the first joint
strongly downward toward the body, at the same time rotating it in
its socket.
26. Musculus productor . I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle arises
dorsally on the inner proximal border of the first segment and passes
forward to its attachment on the heavy basal membrane on the lateral
proximal border of the second segment, on which it exerts a strong
downward pull.
27. Musculus reductor , I antennae (fig. 3).—This short muscle
originates on the inner posterior wall of the first segment and is
inserted anteriorly on the membrane of the proximal part of the sec-
ond joint. It opposes the productor » by bringing the joint upward
toward the midline.
28. Musculus adductor, I antennae (fig. 3)—This is the largest
of the four muscles governing the second joint of the antenna. It
arises on the inner posterior wall of the first segment and is inserted
anteriorly on the membrane at the inner basal part of the second seg-
ment. It thus parallels the reductor , and nearly conceals it. Like the
latter, it brings the second joint upward and toward the midline. No
adductor occurs in Astacus in any of the joints of its first antenna.
29. Musculus abductor, I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle arises
on the inner proximal border of the first segment, directly beneath
the origin of the productor », paralleling it almost to its insertion on
the membrane below the outer proximal edge of the second segment.
It brings the second segment strongly backward and outward.
30. Musculus productor ; I antennae (fig. 3).—This muscle arises
on the outer proximal part of the second joint and is attached to the
cartilage emanating from the outer proximal edge of the third joint,
which is pulled downward and outward by it.
31. Musculus reductor , I antennae (fig. 3).—Also arising on the
outer proximal wall of the second joint, this muscle goes to its attach-
ment on the membrane of the inner proximal border of the third joint,
which it brings inward and upward in opposition to the productor ;.
32. Musculus reductor 4 I antennae (fig. 3)—This is the only
muscle lying in the third segment. It arises on the inner proximal
wall and is inserted on the membrane lying between the two flagella,
which are pulled sharply together by its contraction, while the elasticity
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—-COCHRAN 13
of the membrane pulls them sharply apart. Apparently there are no
special muscles within the flagella themselves.
THE SECOND ANTENNA
In the blue crab the second antenna is so different in structure from
the corresponding appendage in the crayfish and shrimp that it is not
feasible to attempt to draw a parallel very closely between them. The
second antenna in the crayfish, as Schmidt remarks in his masterly
analysis (Schmidt, 1915, p. 205), is the most highly segmented of all
the head appendages, and hence possesses the greatest ability for
motion. The same complicated structure was observed by Miss Berke-
ley in the shrimp Pandalus. Both these crustaceans have a well-devel-
oped, heavily muscled exopodite, as well as an endopodite in which all
the typical segments may be recognized, the flagellum being taken to
represent the dactylopodite in both cases.
There is no jointed exopodite in the blue crab; the only trace of it
is a hard protuberance on the outer part of the basipodite. Since a
complete fusion has taken place between the basipodite and the head
carapace, there are no depressor or levator muscles. The coxopodite
is reduced externally to a membranous pocket lying anteriorly between
the basipodite and the head carapace, in which the fusion occurs poste-
riorly. Arising from the basipodite, and forming the base of the endo-
podite, come two segments which I shall arbitrarily call the ischiopo-
dite and the meropodite, which are provided with the typical reductor
and productor muscles. Following these is a long annulated flagellum
without definite muscles inside it. It is impossible to say whether the
flagellum represents the division of the last three segments of the
normal endopodite—carpopodite, propodite, and dactylopodite—or of
the carpopodite alone, if one wishes to assume the complete loss of the
other two. Because of this uncertainty, the muscles lying in the so-
called meropodite and controlling the action of the flagellum are re-
ferred to as the reductor and productor of the flagellum. 7
33. Musculus promotor II antennae (fig. 4).—This muscle arises
on the dorsal carapace in the protogastric region, and runs inward and
forward to its attachment on a slender tendonlike structure which
thickens and hardens into a sickel-shaped rod, which curves outward
and forward beneath the membranous pouch lying between the basi-
podite and the head carapace, and finally attaches itself to this same
cartilagelike membrane, which is moved forward and inward by its
action.
I4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
34. Musculus remotor II antennae (fig. 4).—This short muscle
arises partly on the head carapace where it fuses with the basipodite
and partly on the upper edge of the membranous pouch below the
basipodite. It passes backward to its insertion on the posterior part of
the sickel-shaped rod mentioned above. The membranous pouch is
pulled backward and downward by its contraction.
35. Musculus productor ischiopoditis II antennae (fig. 4.).—This
muscle arises on the proximal median portion of the basipodite and is
attached to the outer proximal border of the ischiopodite, which it
moves outward and downward.
Fic. 4.—The second antenna.
33, musculus promotor II antennae; 34, musculus remotor II antennae;
35, musculus productor ischiopoditis II antennae; 36, musculus reductor
ischiopoditis II antennae; 37, musculus productor meropoditis II antennae;
38, musculus reductor meropoditis II antennae; 39, musculus productor flagellaris
Il antennae; 40, musculus reductor flagellaris II antennae.
Cxpd, coxopodite; Bspd, basipodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite; Mrpd, meropodite ;
Flg, flagellum.
36. Musculus reductor ischiopoditis IT antennae (fig. 4).—A little
heavier than the preceding, this muscle arises near it on the inner
proximal wall of the basipodite, and is inserted on the inner proximal
margin of the ischiopodite, which is pulled strongly inward toward the
center by its action.
37. Musculus productor meropoditis II antennae (fig. 4).—This
muscle arises on the outer proximal wall of the ischiopodite and is
inserted on the outer proximal margin of the meropodite, on which
it exerts an outward and downward pull.
38. Musculus reductor meropoditis IT antennae (fig. 4).— Like the
preceding in size and shape, this muscle originates on the inner proxi-
mal wall of the ischiopodite and goes to its insertion on the inner proxi-
mal edge of the meropodite, which receives a pull toward the center
from it.
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 15
39. Musculus productor flagellaris II antennae (fig. 4).—Arising on
the proximal posterior wall of the meropodite, this muscle is inserted
on the base of the first annulus of the flagellum, which is-pulled out-
ward and backward by its contraction.
40. Musculus reductor flagellaris II antennae (fig. 4).—This muscle
arises on the anterior wall of the meropodite and is inserted on the
anterior part of the first ring of the flagellum, causing the latter to be
brought inward and forward.
THE MANDIBLE
As in the crayfish, shrimp, and lobster, the mandible in the blue crab
is firmly fixed at two articulations (4 and xx, fig. 5) and hence cannot
rotate.
The position of these articulations, however, is quite different in
the blue crab from that of corresponding articulations in the crayfish
and its allies, and a different mechanism for controlling the mandible
is required. In the crayfish, shrimp, and lobster, one of the articula-
tions is at the extreme upper anterior corner of the mandible, and the
other is at the lower posterior corner. Therefore any muscles connect-
ing the lower anterior corner with the skeletal part near the midline
will pull the lower halves of the mandibles strongly together, function-
ing thus as adductors. A muscle attached to the upper posterior edge
of the mandible, and running from the same central skeletal founda-
tion, perhaps beside and even parallel to the adductors just described,
will pull the mandibles just as strongly apart, performing the function
of abductors. This opposition is made possible by the widely separated
points of articulation of the mandible, which allow its upper and lower
borders to pivot inward and outward between their hinges. This
swinging motion is further intensified by such additional abductors and
adductors as give sufficient power to the masticatory function of the
mandible.
In the blue crab the articulations of mandible with head skeleton are
both anterior, one at the upper and one at the lower corner of the
mandible. Because of these anterior articulations, any muscles going
from the central foundation to any available spot on the inner poste-
rior surface of the mandible behind these forward-lying hinges are
bound to open the mandible, functioning as abductors. Hence there is
no anterior adductor in the blue crab, and the thin sheetlike muscle of
the blue crab, which corresponds to that muscle in the crayfish, func-
tions now as a major abductor of the mandible, and all the work of
closing the mandible has to be done by the very heavy and powerful
posterior and lateral adductors.
2
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
In this appendage a division of the extrinsic muscles into those with
dorsal origin and those with ventral origin is first clearly apparent.
There is as a matter of fact only one ventral muscle, the greater
abductor (41, fig. 5 A, C), and this might be referred to as musculus
ventralis mesalis, the mesal ventral muscle of the mandible, if posi-
tional names were adopted. There are three dorsal muscles of the
Fic. 5—The mandible.
A, dorsal view of the mandible in place.
B, analysis of the mandible as an appendage.
C, mesal view of the mandible.
41, musculus abductor maior mandibulae; 42, musculus abductor minor
mandibulae; 43, musculus adductor posterior mandibulae; 44, musculus adductor
lateralis mandibulae; 45, musculus extensor palpi mandibulae; 46, musculus
flexor a palpi mandibulae; 47, musculus flexor b palpi mandibulae.
x-xx, hinges of the mandible; 742, tendon of musculus abductor minor
mandibulae; 744, tendon of musculus adductor lateralis mandibulae; S, cut
ends of two stomach muscles; J, the dorsal promotor; J, the dorsal remotor ;
KL, the ventral promotor and ventral remotor combined; Ant, anterior border
of the mandible; Post, posterior border of the mandible.
mandible, a posterior outer (42), a posterior inner (43), and a third
one (44), in function a lateral adductor, which is very puzzling to
name as to position, since it attaches itself to the now outer posterior
angle of the mandible, which has reversed itself in the blue crab from
its primitive anterior position.
It has been repeatedly stated that the blue crab is a highly specialized
creature, which departs in certain noticeable ways from the more gen-
eralized morphological aspects of many other crustacean types. Hence
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 17
many of the blue crab’s appendages might be expected to show a varia-
tion from the usual structure, and this expectation is fulfilled when the
mandible is examined and compared specifically to that of the crayfish
and shrimp. Because of its two anterior articulations, to which ref-
erence has already been made, the mandible of the blue crab lies in a
partly reversed position; as a matter of fact, its true anterior border
now is its upper posterior border when the crab occupies a normal
attitude, and its true posterior surface is now entirely ventral in
position.
The primitive appendage, as shown by R. E. Snodgrass in his “‘ Evo-
lution of the Insect Head and the Organs of Feeding,” * has essentially
Fic. 6.—Diagram of the theoretical elementary musculature of the segmental
appendages (after Snodgrass).
a-b, primitive dorsoventral axis of the appendage.
I, dorsal promotor muscle; J, dorsal remotor; K, ventral promotor; L, ventral
remotor; 7, tergum; Stn, sternum; Appd, appendage. (After R. E. Snodgrass,
“The Thoracic Mechanism of a Grasshopper and its Antecedents,’ Smithsonian
Misc. Coll., vol. 82, no. 2, p. 10, 1929.)
four muscles to control the movements of its basal part, two of which
originate in the dorsal region of the body, and two on the ventral
region (see fig. 6). The dorsal muscle, which is inserted on the ante-
rior upper border of the rim of the appendage, is called the dorsal
promotor (/), and the corresponding muscle inserted on the posterior
upper border is the dorsal remotor (J). The muscle inserted on
the anterior lower rim of the appendage is the ventral promotor (K),
and the corresponding muscle with a posterior lower insertion is the
ventral remotor (L).
An attempt has been made (fig. 5 B.) to analyze the extrinsic muscles
of the mandible in the blue crab to see just how they conform to the
simple ancestral type. It was found that the dorsal muscle numbered
* Smithsonian Rep. 1931, p. 465, fig. 14, 1932.
18 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
44, functioning as the lateral adductor, corresponds to the primitive
muscle J with insertion on the upper anterior rim of the appendage.
The two remaining dorsal muscles, the minor abductor (42) and the
posterior adductor (43) together represent the muscle J, since both
originate dorsally and are inserted on the posterior (now ventral!) rim
of the appendage. In the same way the muscle numbered 4/7, acting as
the major abductor, represents a combination of the ventrally-rising
primitive muscles K and L, since 47 is the only muscle of the appen-
dage having a ventral origin.
41. Musculus abductor maior mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—Appear-
ing as a broad sheetlike muscle, this muscle originates in two places
on the head apodeme, and runs outward to its insertion along the
posterior part of the mandible, which it helps to open.
42. Musculus abductor minor mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—This
muscle arises laterally on the dorsal head carapace on the inner part of
the epibranchial region and is inserted by a very slender but strong
tendon on the lower outer part of the mandible, which is opened by it.
43. Musculus adductor posterior mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—\This
very strong muscle arises on the urogastric region of the carapace in
several heavy muscle bundles, which shortly fuse together into a long
and extremely heavy tendon that passes forward and downward to its
attachment on the mandible at the point of its lower articulation with
the head skeleton. It brings the mandible strongly toward the midline.
44. Musculus adductor lateralis mandibulae (fig. 5 A, C).—This
extremely heavy muscle arises on the head carapace partly at the base
of the first spine and partly at the base of the third spine, the parts
uniting on a heavy tendon attaching them to the outer posterior end
of the mandible, which they bring strongly toward the midline.
45. Musculus extensor palpi mandibulae (fig. 5 A).—This muscle
arises on the inner surface of the mandible near the base of the tendon
of the posterior adductor muscle. It is inserted on the heavy mem-
brane connecting the palp and the mandible, and its contraction
straightens the palp and brings it away from the center, opposing
flexor a in its action. There is no extensor for the distal segment of the
palp.
40. Musculus flexor a palpi mandibulae (fig. 5 A).—This short but
stout muscle arises on the outer part of the mandible and travels for-
ward and slightly inward to its attachment on the posterior proximal
border of the first segment of the palp. Its function is to lower the
palp, thereby bringing it toward the median plane.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN Ig
47. Musculus flexor b palpi mandibulae (fig. 5 A)—This muscle
fills the whole of the first segment of the palp. It arises in the mem-
brane proximal to this first segment, and is inserted on the proximal
joint of the last (second) segment. It lowers this last segment, thus
bringing it toward the center.
THE FIRST MAXILLA
The first maxilla in the blue crab, as in the crayfish and shrimp, is
flattened, and while it normally lies close to the outer anterior surface
of the mandible, it has a considerable degree of freedom of motion.
This is due to the fact that its basal part is really in two pieces, the
posterior half rather loosely attached to the lower distal margin of
the anterior half, and the two halves working together somewhat like
the blades in a pair of scissors. The anterior half has been called the
basipodite by Huxley, Schmidt, Berkeley, and some other investiga-
tors, but since there are no muscles between it and the posterior half,
and since the body muscles go to both of them equally, it appears that
the structure is in reality a coxopodite, semi-divided and provided
with hinges to give necessary pliability. Borrodaile also considers that
both parts belong to the coxopodite. It appears that the true basipodite
is completely fused with and indistinguishable from the inner border
of the coxopodite, as the endopodite arises from this region.
Three dorsal muscles run to the first maxilla, although it is impos-
sible to separate them at their origin because of their extremely attenu-
ate form. They separate distinctly into three strands as they pass
behind the mandible to their respective points of insertion on the
first maxilla. The first of these (fig. 7, 51) is the anterior inner,
which may be called musculus dorsalis anterior mesalis and whose
functional name is the anterior adductor of the coxopodite. The next
(52) is a posterior inner, musculus dorsalis posterior mesalis, which
acts as a posterior adductor to the coxopodite. There is but one outer
dorsal muscle, which may be referred to as musculus dorsalis exter-
nalis and which functions as an abductor of the coxopodite.
The ventral muscles may be classed as follows:
54. Upper inner: Musculus ventralis superior mesalis (levator).
55. Lower inner: Musculus ventralis inferior mesalis (depressor ).
48. Anterior outer: Muculus ventralis anterior externalis (promotor ).
49. Posterior outer: Musculus ventralis posterior externalis (remotor a).
50. Median outer: Musculus ventralis medialis externalis (remotor Db).
The only intrinsic muscle in this appendage is 56, the adductor of
the endopodite.
20 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
48. Musculus promotor I maxillae (fig. 7) —This muscle arises on
the head apodeme and runs forward and outward to its dorsal inser-
tion in the extreme lateral part of the coxopodite beneath a disklike
ossification near the inner hinge of the coxopodite. This muscle moves
the coxopodite forward and upward.
49-50. Musculus remotor I maxillae a and b (fig. 7).—The shorter
branch of the remotor (49) arises on the ventral part of the head
: 30 49 52
gir * / /
LAND
MX
Fic. 7.—The first maxilla.
48, musculus promotor I maxillae; 49-50, musculus remotor I maxillae ;
51, musculus adductor anterior I maxillae; 52, musculus adductor posterior |
maxillae; 53, musculus abductor coxopoditis I maxillae; 54, musculus levator I
maxillae; 55, musculus depressor I maxillae; 56, musculus adductor endopoditis
I maxillae.
ACxpd, anterior part of the coxopodite; PCxpd, posterior part of the
coxopodite; Cnd; and Cnd:2, first and second endites of the coxopodite; Endpd,
endopodite.
apodeme external to the origin of the main branch, traveling parallel
to the latter to its insertion on the posterior dorsal angle of the basal
rim of the coxopodite beneath and slightly median to the insertion of
the promotor. Lying directly below the promotor, the longer branch
of the remotor (50) arises on the ventral surface of the head apodeme
somewhat posterior to the origin of the promotor. It is inserted ven-
trally in the anterior dorsal angle of the basal rim of the coxopodite
at a point considerably posterior to the insertion of the promotor and
near the union of the coxopodite with the ringlike outgrowth which
NOI MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 21
encircles it and holds it near to the mandible. Both remotor muscles
oppose the promotor by lowering the coxopodite.
51. Musculus adductor anterior coxopoditis I maxillae (fig. 7).—
This exceedingly long and slender muscle arises on the epibranchial
region of the head carapace and is inserted without a tendon on the
anterior margin of the base of the coxopodite near its mesal end. It
brings the free end of the coxopodite toward the mouth.
52. Musculus adductor posterior coxopoditis I maxillae (fig. 7).—
This very slender, long muscle originates on the head carapace with
the preceding and is indistinguishable from it at first; it travels for-
ward, inward and ventrally to its insertion on the posterior margin of
the base of the coxopodite, which it pulls forward and inward.
53. Musculus abductor coxopoditis I maxillae (fig. 7).—Arising
on the head carapace at the origin of the preceding two and at first
indistinguishable from them, this muscle, likewise very slender, is at-
tached dorsally to the extreme outer border of the coxopodite on the
same disk-shaped ossification that gives attachment to the promotor.
It opposes the adductor in pulling the coxopodite away from the
midline.
54. Musculus levator I maxillae (fig. 7).—This muscle arises
on the anterior part of the head apodeme, just median to the promotor,
traveling forward to the dorsal median proximal border of the inner
half of the coxopodite, which it raises.
55. Musculus depressor I maxillae (fig. 7). —Arising on the ventral
surface of the head apodeme under and slightly posterior to the origin
of the levator, this muscle continues forward directly under the levator
to its insertion on the ventral proximal border of the inner half of the
coxopodite, which it pulls downward.
56. Musculus adductor endopoditis I mazxillae Ge 7).—This
muscle arises on the inner proximal border of the inner half of the
coxopodite and branches into a fanlike formation at its manifold inser-
tion in the central part of the endopodite, which it brings toward the
center of the body. The basipodite is no longer distinguishable as such
in this appendage, and its position is postulated only by the presence of
the endopodite, which when present always arises from the basipodite.
THE SECOND MAXILLA
Although this appendage has the most complex system of muscles
of any in the blue crab, yet its muscles correspond more closely to
those in Astacus and in Pandalus than do the muscles of its other
appendages. The muscles leading to the parts bordering the mouth are
22 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
relatively slender and weak, so that the appendage evidently does not
assist greatly in the process of food-taking. Its true function is shown
in the great development and complexity of the muscles controlling the
scaphognathite, which cause the currents of water to pass continually
over the gills. These muscles are attached to a very thick swelling,
continuous at its outer end with the skeletal ridge running across the
membrane covering the gill chamber. Its inner course borders the junc-
ture of scaphognathite and coxopodite in a crooked and irregular
swelling, which finally comes to an end as a cuplike thickening that
bounds the outer proximal borders of endopodite and basipodite. This
cup gives origin on its inner side to the adductor muscle of the endo-
podite and on its outer side to the flexor of the scaphognathite. No
tendons are found in any muscles of the second maxilla. There is no
levator muscle in this appendage in Callinectes, Astacus, or Pandalus.
The coxopodite bears two mesal bilobed endites, the anterior of
which has been assigned to the basipodite by Brooks and many later
writers. There is no distinguishable basipodite present as such in
either of the two maxillae in the blue crab, but in both maxillae the
coxopodite is so irregularly shaped that its appearance does not sug-
gest superficially that it is in reality all one structure. As in the first
maxilla, the position of the basipodite in the second maxilla is to be
inferred only by the position of the endopodite. This region is so
irregularly convoluted and infolded to give sufficient room for inser-
tion to the complex and numerous respiratory muscles that the original
boundaries between coxopodite, basipodite, scaphognathite, and endo-
podite are completely obliterated in the blue crab. In describing the
muscles of the second maxilla, no further reference will be made to a
basipodite.
As all the dorsal muscles are missing in this as in all the following
segments, the naming of the ventral muscles remaining might appear
to be an easy task, but such is not the case. The myological plan of
the second maxilla is greatly complicated by the presence of no less
than seven respiratory muscles, some of which are extrinsic, some
intrinsic. As a matter of fact, the only muscle which permits of an
easily descriptive positional name is 60, an anterior inner ventral
muscle, musculus ventralis mesalis, which functions as an adductor ot
the coxopodite. The remaining extrinsic ventral muscles (fig. 8) are
57, promotor; 58, remotor; 59, depressor; and 63 through 60, the
anterior respiratory muscles.
The remaining respiratory muscles (67 through 69), are intrinsic,
as are likewise the adductor of the endopodite (61), and the flexor
of the scaphognathite (62).
NO. QO MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 23
57. Musculus promotor II maxillae (fig. 8) —This long, cylindrical
muscle originates on the dorsal surface of the endopleurite of the last
head segment, which segment coalesces with the first two thoracic seg-
ments. It runs straight forward to its insertion on the skeletal ridge
that borders the proximal part of the coxopodite. It brings the cox-
opodite backward and upward, at the same time causing a similar
movement in the attached anterior part of the scaphognathite.
58. Musculus remotor II maxillae (fig. 8).—Almost hidden by the
respiratory muscles, the remotor arises on the dorsal surface of the
endosternite of the same segment just in front of the apodemal fora-
Cnd 2
Fic. 8.—The second maxilla.
57, musculus promotor II maxillae; 58, musculus remotor II maxillae; 50,
musculus depressor II maxillae; 60, musculus adductor coxopoditis II maxillae;
61, musculus adductor endopoditis II maxillae; 62, musculus flexor scaphogna-
thitis II maxillae; 63-69, musculi respiratorii II maxillae.
Cnd; and Cnd:, first and second endites of the coxopodite; Endpd, endopodite;
Scg, scaphognathite.
men, and passes forward and outward between respiratory muscles one
and two to its insertion on the thickened edge of the coxopodite slightly
lateral to and below that of the promotor. It brings the coxopodite up-
ward and somewhat toward the center.
59. Musculus depressor II maxillae (fig. 8).—This is the smallest
and weakest muscle in the entire appendage. It arises ventrally on the
endosternite, appearing as two very thin branches which travel for-
ward through the coxopodite to their insertion on its proximal border.
It causes the coxopodite to move downward and inward. In Astacus
this muscle also has two branches.
60. Musculus adductor coxopoditis II maxillae (fig. 8).— This rela-
tively short and slender but strong muscle arises on the inner anterior
24 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
corner of the endosternite, running inward and forward to its insertion
on the inner proximal border of the coxopodite. It pulls the coxopodite
strongly backward and thus toward the center.
61. Musculus adductor endopoditis II maxillae (fig. 8).—This slen-
der threadlike muscle arises on the inner proximal part of the coxopo-
dite, passing laterally to its insertion on the cuplike swelling at the
lateral outer border of the endopodite. It causes the endopodite to be
bent somewhat toward the inner region.
62. Musculus flexor scaphognathitis II maxillae (fig. 8)—This
muscle originates in the cuplike thickening that borders the outer part
of coxopodite and endopodite, and runs outward with pronounced
ramification through the scaphognathite to its attachment on the car-
tilaginous fold which parallels the outer border of the scaphognathite.
This segment is bent by means of the flexor muscle. In Pandalus there
is an additional superior flexor muscle which is unbranched.
63-69. Musculi respiratorii IT maxillae (fig. 8).—Arising on the
dorsal surface of the endopleurite just mesal to the origin of the
promotor, the first of these muscles, musculus respiratorius primus
(63), goes forward and outward beneath the promotor to its insertion
on the lateral part of the skeletal swelling between coxopodite and
scaphognathite. This and the remaining respiratory muscles induce a
strong undulating motion in the scaphognathite, thus forcing the water
that is drawn into the gill chamber to flow forward. The second
muscle, musculus respiratorius secundus (64), heavy and powerful like
the first, arises mediodorsally on the head apodeme, runs outward and
forward, and passes above the first and below the promotor to reach
its insertion just over the first. The third, musculus respiratorius
tertius (65), is a small and slender muscle completely hidden until the
more dorsal muscles are removed. It originates on the thickened
skeletal ridge on the anterior part of the head apodeme, and runs for-
ward and slightly outward to its insertion on the skeletal swelling of
the scaphognathite just below the insertion of the remotor. The
fourth, musculus respiratorius quartus (66), is an exceedingly heavy
but short muscle arising under the third on the same skeletal ridge of
the head apodeme, running outward to its insertion on the scaphog-
nathite, between two angles of the skeletal swelling marking its proxi-
mal border. The fifth, musculus respiratorius quintus (67), is a small,
powerful muscle arising on an infolding of the apodemal membrane
behind the fourth, then passing forward and slightly inward to its inser-
tion on the skeletal swelling just beneath the insertion of the promotor.
The sixth muscle, musculus respiratorius sextus (68), arises on the
same infolding just lateral to the fifth, and proceeds straight forward
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 25
to its insertion on the swelling, directly below the insertion of the
third. The seventh muscle, musculus respiratorius septimus (69), like
the sixth, is short and slender, arising laterally to it on the infolding
and being inserted on the swelling midway between the insertions of
the fourth and the sixth.
THE FIRST MAXILLIPED
The resemblance of this appendage to the maxillae rather than to
the typical thoracic appendage has already been commented upon by
several authors. The endopodite is weakly developed and devoid of
muscles in the blue crab, but as its basal part is partly fused to the
exopodite, it naturally partakes of the motion of the exopodite caused
by the adductor muscle of the latter. The exopodite is relatively
heavily muscled. The muscle extending through the flagellum origi-
nates entirely within the proximal segment of the flagellum, which is
considerably enlarged. This origin is similar to that found in Astacus.
In Pandalus the origin of this muscle is in the basal lobe of the first seg-
ment of the exopodite. The extremely poor development of the abduc-
tor of the flagellum in Pandalus appears to throw the whole task of
moving the flagellum upon the flagellar muscle itself, which therefore
needs the wider attachment space. In Astacus and Callinectes, where
the abductor of the flagellum is relatively very large, the flagellar
muscle is rather slender and weak.
Of the extrinsic muscles in the first maxilliped of the blue crab, it
is possible to name positively only the promotor and the attractor of
the epipodite. The small anomalous muscles which take the place of
reductor, levator, and depressor have been referred to by number only,
as their true function is as yet obscure. Further dissection of other
representative decapods may subsequently reveal some species in which
the functions of the corresponding muscles will be more apparent,
and it may be possible in this way to assign names by analogy to these
which it is now inadvisable to attempt to name arbitrarily.
As in both maxillae, the basipodite of the first maxilliped is no
longer traceable as a distinct segment, being either eliminated com-
pletely or indistinguishably fused with the coxopodite. Its normal
position if it were present may be ascertained in relation to the origins
of endopodite and exopodite. In that case it would have lain between
the second endite of the coxopodite and the epipodite.
70. Musculus promotor medialis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).—This
strong but slender muscle arises on the inner anterior border of the
paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments near the
26 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
midline of the body. It passes forward and slightly outward to its
tendinous insertion on the tough membrane composing the dorsal sur-
face of the coxopodite. It causes the coxopodite, and with it to some
extent the inner part of the whole appendage, to be brought upward
and inward.
71. Musculus promotor lateralis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).—This
muscle is hidden partly beneath the first of the attractors of the epipo-
dite and partly by the fused lamellae of the first and second thoracic
paraphragms, on the outer ventral surface of which it arises. It runs
Cot
NEP ena a
WW \
WU HAW ~~ JCxpary
ys é aS
\\ af 5 Es
Fic. 9 —The first maxilliped.
70, musculus promotor medialis I pedis maxillaris; 7z, musculus promotor
lateralis I pedis maxillaris; 72, unnamed Saas 73a- Shy musculus attractor epi-
poditis I pedis maxillaris ; 74, unnamed muscle ; 5, unnamed muscle; 76, unnamed
muscle; 77, musculus adductor exopoditis I Bee maxillaris; 78, ‘musculus ab-
ductor flagelli exopoditis I pedis maxillaris; 79, musculus flagellaris exopoditis
I pedis maxillaris.
Cnd, and Cnd2, first and second endites of the coxopodite; Capd, coxopodite ;
Endpd, endopodite; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite.
forward and slightly inward to its attachment on the lateral border of
the coxopodite just at the point of origin of the epipodite. It helps to
raise the appendage but otherwise opposes the medial promotor by
exerting an outward pull.
72. (Fig. 9)—This powerful but short muscle originates on the
endosternite, passing outward beneath the median promotor to its
insertion on the extreme outer ventral borders of the coxopodite with-
out a tendon. It is not feasible to attempt to name this muscle func-
tionally, as no definite movement of the appendage can be assigned
solely to it. It appears to lie in approximately the same position as does
the levator muscle in Astacus.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 27
73 a, b. Musculus attractor epipoditis a and b I pedis maxillaris
(fig. 9).—One branch of this muscle arises on the dorsal portion of
the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments, lying
directly below the first respiratory muscle of the second maxilla. It
passes outward and forward to its insertion on the outer dorsal proxi-
mal border of the epipodite, which it raises strongly, at the same time
causing it to move backward and inward. The second branch, larger
and more powerful than the first, passes under the first on its forward
and outward path to its insertion beneath it on the ventral proximal
border of the epipodite, which it brings strongly backward and
downward.
74. (Vig. 9)—This short muscle arises deeply within a cuplike
membrane beside the inner epistomal rim and is inserted at the base of
the first endite on the coxopodite. It is impracticable to give a
functional name to this muscle, although it undoubtedly controls the
coxopodite in some way. It might perform the duties of a levator, but
this can not be ascertained directly.
75. (Fig. 9).—This short but thick muscle arises on the mesal edge
of the same cuplike membrane as does the preceding muscle, and is
inserted deeply within the first endite of the coxopodite. It is not
possible to name it as to function, although it presumably causes what-
ever motion the first endite is capable of making. Its position is some-
what similar to that of the depressor in Pandalus and Astacus.
70. (Fig. 9).—This short but heavy muscle arises on the lateral edge
of the same cuplike membrane which gives origin to the two preceding
muscles and is inserted beside and lateral to 74, where the first and
second endites come together. Again a functional name is not forth-
coming as no positive motion can be assigned to this particular muscle.
77. Musculus adductor exopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9). —This
muscle originates on the posterior surface of the coxopodite just
lateral to the insertion of 76, and runs laterally to its insertion on the
outer anterior proximal border of the exopodite just above the ori-
gin of 78. It brings the exopodite, and with it the partly fused .endopo-
dite, away from the epipodite and toward the center. Berkeley men-
tions a well-developed abductor exopoditis in Pandalus, not present in
the blue crab. The endopodite of the blue crab has no muscles of its
own.
78. Musculus abductor flagelli exopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig.
g).—Arising in two places on the inner ventral proximal wall of the
exopodite, this powerful muscle unites and passes to its insertion on
the inner proximal edge of the enlarged first segment of the flagellum.
It causes a strong upward and outward movement in the flagellum.
28 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
79. Musculus flagellaris exopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 9).—
Originating in the proximal segment of the enlarged first joint of the
flagellum, this muscle runs outward through the various segments
nearly to the tip of the flagellum, giving off small fibers in each seg-
ment which attach themselves to the wall, thus giving a high degree
of pliability to the flagellum.
THE SECOND MAXILLIPED
In this appendage the first true hinges between the segments appear,
just as they do in both Astacus and Pandalus. In section, the ischio-
podite is found to be fused with the basipodite. The exopodite is
merely an annulated flagellum as in Pandalus. The promotor appears
to be inserted by a tendon, as are some of the muscles at the distal
segments of the endopodite. A long, flat epipodite and two podo-
branchiae are present, with a slender attractor muscle to control the
epipodite. In Astacus there are two podobranchiae and no epipodite ;
in Pandalus, a single podobranchia and an epipodite are present.
80. Musculus promotor II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—This muscle
arises usually in two parts on the inner median edge of the paraphragm
between the first and second thoracic segments in a very broad attach-
ment. The muscle fibers rapidly converge into a single thin tendon,
which is attached to the extreme inner edge of the coxopodite. It
causes the entire endopodite to move inward and upward.
81. Musculus remotor II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—This muscle
arises on a more lateral part of the two paraphragms next to the
gill-chamber, and proceeds forward and inward to its insertion on the
outer posterior border of the coxopodite. It lowers the outer part of
the coxopodite, bringing it distinctly outward and backward.
82. Musculus levator II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10.) —This muscle
arises as a heavy and massive muscle on the inner lateral edge of the
paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments, and passes
without diminution in size to its insertion on the dorsal proximal
membranous portion of the basi-ischiopodite. There is but one levator
in Callinectes; both Astacus and Pandalus have two.
83 a, b. Musculus depressor a and b II pedis mavxillaris (fig.
10).—The main branch of the depressor arises on the inner edge of
the paraphragm between the first and second thoracic segments mid-
way between the origins of promotor and levator. It parallels these
two muscles to its insertion on the inner posterior border of the coxo-
podite. It gives a strong inward and downward pull to the coxopodite
and hence to the whole of the endopodite. The small depressor b arises
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 29
near the junction of the coxopodite with the paraphragm and is in-
serted just ventral to the main branch. It assists in lowering the
coxopodite.
84. Musculus attractor epipoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
Arising laterally on the meeting point of the body wall and the coxopo-
Fic. 10—The second maxilliped.
80, musculus promotor II pedis maxillaris; 8z, musculus remotor II pedis
maxillaris; 82, musculus levator II pedis maxillaris; 83a-b, musculus depressor
a-b II pedis maxillaris; 84, musculus attractor epipoditis II pedis maxillaris;
85, musculus abductor exopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 86, musculus flagellaris
exopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 87, musculus abductor flagelli exopoditis II
pedis maxillaris; 88, musculus productor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris; 89,
musculus reductor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris; 90, musculus abductor
carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris; 9z, musculus adductor carpopoditis II pedis
maxillaris ; 92, musculus productor propoditis II pedis maxillaris; 93, musculus
reductor propoditis II pedis maxillaris; 94, musculus productor dactylopoditis
II pedis maxillaris; 95, musculus reductor dactylopoditis II pedis maxillaris.
Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite ; Crpd, carpopodite; Cxpd, coxopodite; Dcpd,
dactylopodite; Eppd, epipodite; E-xpd, exopodite : Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd,
propodite.
dite, this slender muscle travels laterally to its insertion on the proxi-
mal border of the epipodite, which it moves slightly inward.
85. Musculus abductor exopoditis II pedis mavxillaris (fig. 10).—
This muscle arises ventrally in the outer side of the coxopodite and
proceeds laterally to its attachment on the median ventral proximal
part of the exopodite. It causes the exopodite to move outward and
forward.
30 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
86. Musculus flagellaris exopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
This muscle arises on the proximal border of the enlarged first ring
of the flagellum and runs nearly to the tip, giving off short fibers at
every annulation. As a consequence the flagellum has a considerable
degree of mobility.
87. Musculus abductor flagelli exopoditis II pedis mavxillaris (fig.
10).—This muscle arises in two parts on the proximal dorsal side of
the basal segment of the exopodite, fuses and runs to its insertion on
the first ring of the flagellum, to which it imparts a strong outward
motion.
88. Musculus productor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10). —
This muscle arises on the ventral lateral border of the basi-ischiopodite
and is inserted on the inner ventral proximal edge of the meropodite.
The muscle is short but powerful. It moves the meropodite forward.
89. Musculus reductor meropoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
More slender than 88 but likewise short, this muscle rises on the dorsal
proximal border of the basi-ischiopodite and is inserted on the lateral
proximal border of the meropodite. It tends to pull the meropodite
backward.
00. Musculus abductor carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
This muscle originates in many bundles of fibers near the inner proxi-
mal border of the meropodite and is inserted on the proximal inner
edge of the carpopodite. It moves the carpopodite upward and outward.
or. Musculus adductor carpopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
About the same size as the preceding, this muscle arises in a bundle
of fibers on the inner surface of the meropodite and is inserted on the
proximal inner edge of the carpopodite which it moves downward and
inward.
92. Musculus productor propoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
Arising on the outer proximal wall of the carpopodite, this muscle nar-
rows rapidly to its tendinous insertion on the outer proximal edge of
the propodite, which it moves strongly forward.
93. Musculus reductor propoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
This relatively small muscle arises on the inner proximal part of the
carpopodite and is inserted by a tendon on the inner proximal border
of the propodite which it bends backward, and hence toward the mouth.
04. Musculus productor dactylopoditis II pedis maxillaris (fig.
10).—Arising on the outer proximal part of the propodite, this muscle
is inserted by a short tendon on the outer proximal border of the
dactylopodite, which it moves forward.
05. Musculus reductor dactylopoditis I pedis maxillaris (fig. 10).—
Like the preceding in size and shape, this muscle arises on the inner
NO. QO MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 31
proximal part of the propodite and passes quickly to its tendinous
insertion on the inner proximal edge of the dactylopodite, which is
brought inward and backward.
THE THIRD MAXILLIPED
This appendage in the blue crab, as in the crayfish, retains its func-
tion of a true mouthpart, and is essentially similar to the second maxil-
liped in structure. In the shrimp, on the other hand, the third maxil-
liped no longer assists in the taking of food, but is pediform and has
completely lost its exopodite, while its endopodite has fewer segments,
a characteristic condition in the Caridea. The endopodite in the blue
crab is bent inward in its natural position ; in fact, it can not be straight-
ened perfectly, owing to the shape of the segments and the uniformly
weak development of all the extensors except the one controlling the
dactylopodite.
The coxopodite and the basipodite of the third maxilliped of the blue
crab appear to be represented by a single segment, the protopodite.
Brooks (1882) has labeled as “ basipodite’’ the narrowed proximal
part of the ischiopodite, which externally appears to be set off from
the main part of the segment by a suture. An examination of the mus-
culature of this segment, however, shows no evidence that it is com-
posed of two elements. Furthermore, the exopodite does not originate
upon this proximal region of the ischiopodite, which it would naturally
do if a true basipodite were involved here.
06. Musculus promotor III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11 )—This muscle
arises mostly on the dorsal side of the endosternite of the third thoracic
segment, and partly on the ventral (now anterior) side of the para-
phragm, which is very narrow here. It is a powerful and wide muscle,
narrowing and thickening as it goes forward to its insertion on a
heavy tendinous ligament of the dorsal proximal inner corner of the
protopodite, which is moved inward and forward by it.
07. Musculus remotor III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—Arising lat-
erally on the endosternite, this strong muscle is inserted by a tendon
on the lateral proximal edge of the protopodite. It opposes the pro-
motor effectively, although it is somewhat less developed.
98 a-c. Musculus levator a, b, and c III pedis mavillaris (fig.
11).—This muscle is much smaller than the preceding. Its main
branch (a@) arises on the endosternite beneath the promotor and is
inserted near the center of the posterior wall of the protopodite. The
shortest branch () originates near the main branch on the endoster-
nite, and joins the main branch before its insertion on the protopodite.
3
32 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Another branch (c) arises in the extreme lateral border of the pro-
topodite not far from the insertion of the remotor and passes inward
to its insertion anterior to that of the main branch on the posterior wall
of the protopodite. The levators move the basipodite outward and
forward.
PT ea
Crpd“ 1107109 108 107 106 105
Fic. 11.—The third maxilliped.
96, musculus promotor III pedis maxillaris; 97, musculus remotor III pedis
maxillaris; 98a-c, musculus levator a-c III pedis maxillaris; 99, musculus
depressor III pedis maxillaris; roo, musculus adductor exopoditis III pedis
maxillaris ; zoz, musculus abductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris ; 102, musculus
abductor flagelli III pedis maxillaris; 103, musculus flagellaris exopoditis III
pedis maxillaris; ro4, musculus flexor meropoditis III pedis maxillaris; 105,
musculus extensor meropoditis III pedis maxillaris; 106, musculus flexor
carpopoditis III pedis maxillaris; zo7, musculus flexor propoditis III pedis
maxillaris; zo8, musculus extensor propoditis III pedis maxillaris; oo,
musculus flexor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris; rzo, musculus extensor
dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris.
Crpd, carpopodite; Dcpd, dactylopodite; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite;
Iscpd, ischiopodite; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite; Prtpd, protopodite.
99. Musculus depressor III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—This is a
very heavy muscle which originates over a relatively broad area on the
epimeral plate beneath and beside the promotor, as well as the dorsal
side of the endopleurite. Its many branches run forward and inward
to join before the insertion of the muscle on the ventral median distal
part of the protopodite. It opposes the levators.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 33
too. Musculus adductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) .—
This slender but strong muscle originates in the extreme distal anterior
part of the protopodite and runs inward to its insertion on a short, hard
projection of the inner proximal border of the exopodite, which is
pulled strongly toward the midline by the contraction of the muscle.
The crayfish does not appear to have this muscle.
tor. Musculus abductor exopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) .—
This is a short, loosely-knit muscle arising ventrally on the median
border of the protopodite and running obliquely outward and forward
to its insertion on the heavy membrane attached to the ventral proxi-
mal wall of the exopodite. It moves the exopodite away from the
center and slightly outward.
102. Musculus abductor flagelli IIT pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—
This strong muscle originates in two places on the proximal part of
the exopodite. The two sections soon unite, and the muscle is inserted
by a tendon on the outer proximal edge of the greatly enlarged first
segment of the flagellum, which is moved strongly upward and out-
ward by its action.
103. Musculus flagellaris exopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) .—
Originating on the proximal wall of the enlarged first segment of the
flagellum, this muscle goes almost to the tip of the flagellum, giving
off fibers to each annulus, and thus insuring freedom of motion to the
flagellum.
104. Musculus flexor meropoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—
‘his muscle arises in numerous groups of fibers on both dorsal and
ventral walls of the ischiopodite. These fibers all join a tendon before
their final insertion on the inner proximal edge of the meropodite,
which is strongly pulled down by their action. There is apparently no
extensor muscle, the tension of the joint itself being sufficient to bring
the meropodite back into position after its contraction by the flexor.
105. Musculus extensor carpopoditis III pedis mavillaris (fig.
11).—This very slender and weak muscle originates midway on the
walls of the meropodite and is inserted on the outer proximal edge of
the carpopodite, which it pulls upward rather weakly.
106. Musculus flexor carpopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—
As might be expected from the condition in the preceding segment,
this muscle, which causes the bending toward the center, is very well
developed. It originates widely on the proximal margin of the mero-
podite and narrows to its tendinous insertion on the inner proximal
margin of the carpopodite.
107. Musculus flexor propoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) —
This muscle is similar to the flexor in the preceding segment in size
34 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
and function. It originates on the outer walls of the carpopodite, nar-
rowing to an insertion on the outer proximal edge of the propodite.
108. Musculus extensor propoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11) —
Originating on the inner proximal walls of the carpopodite and inserted
by a tendon on the inner proximal corner of the propodite, this muscle
is like the corresponding one in the preceding segment in form and
function.
109. Musculus flexor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig. 11).—
This muscle originates on the outer proximal border of the propodite
and is inserted by a tendon on the outer proximal edge of the dac-
tylopodite. Relative to the size of its opposing extensor, it is better
developed than any other flexor in this endopodite, and apparently can
exert a strong outward pull upon the dactylopodite.
110. Musculus extensor dactylopoditis III pedis maxillaris (fig.
11 ).—Originating on the inner proximal margin of the propodite, this
muscle is inserted on the inner proximal edge of the dactylopodite,
which is brought strongly downward by it. In this segment the ex-
tensor and the flexor are nearly the same in size and apparent strength.
THE PEREIOPODS
The five pairs of pereiopods, or true legs, occur upon the last five of
the eight thoracic segments. The promotor, the remotor, and the
levator muscles of each pereiopod are extrinsic in the origin of all
their parts. The depressor. of the telopodite, however, is both extrinsic
and intrinsic in origin, for the larger and heavier branches originate
in the body wall or some of its apodemes, while there are usually two
or more branches originating proximally on the anterior and posterior
walls of the coxopodite.
The functions of the different pairs of legs become evident upon
examining their distal segments. On the first parr of legs, the dactylo-
podite arises on the anterior (preaxial) border of the propodite nearly
at the middle ; the unhampered tip of the propodite curves and tapers
to a point, while the dactylopodite curves in a way to oppose it effec-
tively, the two forming a powerful pinching claw, the chela, which is
rendered still more effective by the horny teeth that have developed
on the opposable surfaces. The claw is held out in front of the cara-
pace, and may swing widely forward and sidewise in a horizontal
plane, and less widely in a perpendicular plane, both movements serv-
ing as the means to repulse an enemy or to seize and tear up food. The
extension of the leg forward has caused it to assume a position half-
turned from the normal one, and now the true anterior (preaxial) sur-
face of the first pereiopod is uppermost.
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN
on
Sat
The second, third, and fourth pereiopods resemble one another
rather closely, as they are nearly the same in size and perform the same
kinds of motions, being adapted for walking. In these, the dactylopo-
dite arises on the distal part of the propodite, tapering rapidly and
becoming much flattened. The tip is pointed and sharp, and on these
tips the crab is able to walk. The overhang of the carapace allows little
upward motion to these legs, and so they have retained the normal posi-
tion of hanging downward beneath the body. The anterior surface of
these legs is preaxial, as is usually the case in arthropods.
The fifth and last pereiopod is the swimming leg, and projects back-
ward and upward behind the carapace when the crab is swimming. Its
basal muscles are very powerful, especially the remotor, which is rela-
tively weak in the preceding pereiopods. The terminal segment is very
thin and flat like the blade of a paddle, ovoid in shape, and propels the
crab sidewise very swiftly. Like the first pereiopod, the fifth is also a
half-turn away from its normal position, but in a direction opposite to .
that of the first, so that its anterior (preaxial) face is now downward,
and its postaxial face uppermost.
Since the muscles of the segments distal to the basipodite are essen-
tially similar in all the pereiopods, those of the third pereiopod have
been chosen to be described in detail, while the corresponding muscles
of the other legs may be referred to the third as a model, taking into
consideration the fact that the first and fifth legs are not identical with
it in position. The basal muscles are sufficiently different in each leg
to merit a full description.
A cross-section of the body at the level of the anterior part of the
fourth and of the sixth thoracic segments shows the relations of some
of the muscles of the first and third legs to their respective surround-
ings. (See fig. 13.)
The promotor of the fifth pereiopod deserves notice because of the
peculiar disposition of its anterior branch. This projects forward
through the thorax into the fourth thoracic segment, surrounded by a
membrane, on the posterior surface of which its own fibers originate,
and on the anterior surface of which about a dozen branches of muscles
pertaining to the legs of the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh segments
also take their origin.
Another feature of the endoskeletal structure must here be ex-
plained. An intermediate endopleurite exists in the center of each of
the basal chambers occupied by the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh seg-
ments. This endopleurite is fastened to the membrane covering the
36 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
6 5
=|
l7
139 157 156d
J K ie
(Ae. 1a
lve 146a 147a
M I56b N O
pra ie bid Re ae i oe oie op ie
I57b 158 IGl 159 158f 158b 158a 158c
tee
I55e 155b 155a 18a
Fic. 12. (For legend see next page.)
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB-——COCHRAN By
anterior projection of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod, and gives
additional room for attachment to the numerous branches of muscles
governing the movements of the leg base.
THE FIRST PEREIOPOD
t11 a, b. Musculus promotor a and b (figs. 12 A, 13 B).—The
anterior branch (a) originates upon a narrow, curved apodeme which
comes inward and forward from the floor of the gill chamber and
attaches itself laterally by a process to the sternum and medially to the
endosternite between the third and fourth thoracic segments. The
muscle passes outward and downward to its attachment on a heavy
membrane coming from the preaxial proximal border of the coxopo-
dite. The posterior branch (b) originates on the anterior border of the
intermediate endopleurite of this segment and ends upon a heavy ten-
don attached to the anterior border of the coxopodite and directly
behind the attachment of branch a. These two parts give a strong for-
ward pull to the basal part of the leg.
112. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 C). This is the only unbranched
muscle controlling the leg base. It takes origin partly on the lateral
surface of the membrane enclosing the anterior promotor of the fifth
pereiopod behind 173 c and partly on the anterior part of the endo-
pleurite separating the fifth and sixth thoracic segments. It is inserted
Fic. 12.—The pereiopods.
A, B, C, the first pereiopod.
14, musculus attractor epimeralis ; rzza-b, musculus promotor a-b; 112, mus-
culus remotor; rz3a-c, musculus levator a-c; z14a-g, musculus depressor a-g ;
115, musculus reductor meropoditis; 126, musculus abductor carpopoditis; 117,
musculus adductor carpopoditis.
D, E, F, the second pereiopod.
r22a-d, musculus promotor a-d; 123, musculus remotor; 124a-d, musculus
levator a-d; 125a-e, musculus depressor a-e; 126, musculus reductor mero-
poditis; 127, musculus abductor carpopoditis; 125, musculus adductor carpo-
poditis.
G, H, I, the third pereiopod.
133a-g, musculus promotor a-g; 134, musculus remotor; 135a-c, musculus
levator a-c; 136a-e, musculus depressor a-e; 137, musculus reductor meropoditis ;
138, musculus abductor carpopoditis ; 739, musculus adductor carpopoditis.
Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite; Crpd, coxopodite.
J, K, L, the fourth pereiopod.
14ga-d, musculus promotor a-d; 145, musculus remotor; 146a-b, musculus
levator a-b; 147a-d, musculus depressor a-d; 148, musculus reductor mero-
poditis; z49, musculus abductor carpopoditis; 150, musculus adductor carpo-
poditis.
M, N, O, the fifth pereiopod.
155a-c, musculus promotor a-c; 156a-b, musculus remotor a-b; 157a-c, mus-
culus levator a-c; 158a-f, musculus depressor a-f; 159, musculus reductor
peas 160, musculus abductor carpopoditis ; 167, musculus adductor carpo-
poditis.
38 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
on a heavy tendon attached to the upper postaxial border of the coxo-
podite. The leg base is pulled backward by the contraction of this
muscle.
A
Fic. 13.—Transverse section of the thorax.
A, section through the third pereiopod.
122b, branch of musculus promotor of second pereiopod; 133c-g, branches
of musculus promotor of third pereiopod; 136a, branch of musculus depressor
of third pereiopod; 137, musculus reductor meropoditis of third pereiopod;
138, musculus abductor carpopoditis of third pereiopod; 739, musculus adductor
carpopoditis of third pereiopod; ro, musculus productor propoditis of third
pereiopod; 142, musculus reductor propoditis of third pereiopod ; 142, musculus
abductor dactylopoditis of third pereiopod; 143, musculus adductor dactylo-
poditis of third pereiopod; 155a, branch of musculus promotor of fifth pereiopod ;
156d, branch of musculus remotor of fifth pereiopod; 757a, branch of musculus
levator of fifth pereiopod.
B, section through the first pereiopod.
IJ, musculus attractor epimeralis; z7Za-b, branches of musculus promotor of
first pereiopod; rrga, branch of musculus depressor of first pereiopod; 175,
musculus reductor meropoditis of first pereiopod; 116, musculus abductor
carpopoditis of first pereiopod; 177, musculus adductor carpopoditis of first
pereiopod ; 178, musculus productor propoditis of first pereiopod; 179, musculus
reductor propoditis of first pereiopod; 120, musculus abductor dactylopoditis
of first pereiopod; 72rz, musculus adductor dactylopoditis of first pereiopod ;
122b, branch of musculus promotor of second pereiopod; 133, branch of mus-
culus promotor of third pereiopod.
113 a-c. Musculus levator a-c (fig. 12 A, B).—The first branch
(a) originates on the anterior border of the endosternite separating
the fourth and fifth thoracic segments. It passes outward to its inser-
tion on the upper postaxial proximal border of the coxopodite. A sec-
ond and much shorter branch (>) begins on the lower rim of the inter-
.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB——-COCHRAN 39
mediate endopleurite. A third branch (c) begins behind this endo-
pleurite on the lateral surface of the membrane holding the anterior
promotor branches of the fifth pereiopod which extends forward
through the thorax and gives attachment to many muscles, and runs
into branch b at their mutual insertion. These muscle parts act to-
gether in raising the leg base.
114 a-g. Musculus depressor a-g (figs. 12 A, B, C; 13 B)—The
first branch (a) originates mesally on the sternum and passes out-
ward to its insertion on the tendon attached to the membrane on the
preaxial proximal border of the basi-ischiopodite. The second branch
(b) is very indistinctly separated from the first, originating in several
sections along the anterior edge of the endosternite separating the
fourth and fifth thoracic segments. A third branch (c) which appears
to be quite distinct, originates on the extreme lateral part of the same
endosternite beneath 773 a, and comes forward to its insertion on the
membrane of the lower proximal border of the basi-ischiopodite. The
fourth branch (d) begins behind the intermediate endopleurite on the
under surface of the pleural wall separating the gill chamber from the
fifth thoracic segment. The remaining branches (e, f, and g) originate
at different points in the posterior part of the coxopodite. These three
last-named branches are not compact, and it is possible to subdivide
them still further than this. The distinctness of these minor branches
varies considerably according to the state of preservation of the tissues,
and consequently appears to be much less evident in some individuals
than in others. They are inserted side by side along the lower and post-
axial proximal margins of the basi-ischiopodite. The depressor muscle
as a whole gives a very strong downward movement to the leg base.
115. Musculus reductor meropoditis.—See 137.
116. Musculus abductor car popoditis—See 138.
117. Musculus adductor carpopoditis—See 139.
118. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140.
119. Musculus reductor propoditis—See 141.
120. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142.
121. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis—See 143.
THE SECOND PEREIOPOD
122 a-d. Musculus promotor a-d (fig. 12 D).—The most anterior
part (a@) arises on the posterior surface of the endosternite separating
the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, passing downward and out-
ward to its insertion on a heavy tendon coming from the proximal
preaxial rim of the coxopodite. The long and slender branch (0)
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
originates mesally on the prolongation of the endopleurites where they
come together just below the attractor of the epimera. It travels ven-
trally for half its length, separated from the visceral cavity only by a
very thin sheet of tissue. It passes at last into the fifth thoracic seg-
ment behind branch a of the promotor, where it finally attaches itself
to the same tendon. The third branch (c) originates on the lateral
part of the membrane covering the anterior promotor of the fifth
pereiopod, which extends forward through the thorax as previously
stated. The most lateral branch (d) originates on the lateral anterior
surface of the intermediate endopleurite, being inserted beside branch
c on the broad tendon common to all branches of the promotor. The
contraction of this muscle causes the leg base to be moved strongly
forward.
123. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 F).—As in the first leg, this is
the only unbranched muscle belonging to the leg base. It arises on the
anterior surface of the endopleurite separating the fifth and sixth
thoracic segments, passing downward and outward to its tendinous
insertion on the upper postaxial border of the coxopodite. It opposes
the promotor.
124 a-d. Musculus levator a-d (fig. 12 D, E).—This heavy muscle
appears to be divided into four main parts, although the third and
fourth are not very distinct from each other. The first branch (a)
arises on the posterior surface of the endosternite between the fourth
and fifth thoracic segments and is inserted by an extremely strong
tendon on the upper (in this case postaxial) border of the basi-ischio-
podite. A second branch (0b) arises on the lateral part of the mem-
brane encasing the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod. The two
remaining branches (c and d) arise close together, on the anterior sur-
face of the endosternite between the fifth and sixth thoracic segments,
and are inserted between branches a and b on the same strong tendon.
The entire muscle causes the leg to be raised.
125 a-e. Musculus depressor a-e (fig. 12 D, E, F)—The first
branch (a) originates mesally on the posterior surface of the en-
dosternite separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, as well
as on the sternal wall of the fifth segment. It is inserted on the lower
(in this case preaxial) rim of the basi-ischiopodite. A very short
branch (0) runs from the anterior part of the coxopodite to the same
insertion, while a similar short branch (c) originates in the rear of
the coxopodite. A slightly longer branch (d) begins on the outer part
of the sternal wall near the endosternite between the fifth and sixth
thoracic segments. The longest branch (e) originates on the anterior
wall of the endopleurite separating the fifth and sixth segments, com-
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 41
ing forward and downward to its insertion with the other branches.
The muscle as a whole opposes the levator.
126. Musculus reductor meropoditis.——See 137.
127. Muculus abductor carpopoditis—See 138.
128. Musculus adductor carpopoditis—See 139.
129. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140.
130. Musculus reductor propoditis—See I4T.
131. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142.
132. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis—See 143.
THE THIRD PEREIOPOD
133 a-g. Musculus promotor a-g (figs. 12 A; 13 A).—The anterior
branch (a) originates on the posterior surface of the endosternite
separating the fourth and fifth thoracic segments, going outward to
its insertion on the tendon attached to the anterior proximal rim of the
coxopodite. The second branch (0) originates on the same prolonga-
tion of the endopleurites on which 122 b of the preceding segment
takes origin. It travels ventrally beside 122 b, separated from the
visceral masses only by a thin membrane, passing finally under the
anterior extension of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod until it joins
its tendon. Branch c originates mesally on the anterior upper edge
of the endosternite separating the sixth and seventh segments near to
its point of fusion with the endopleurite. The next two branches (d
and e), not very distinct from each other, arise on the lateral part of
the membrane encasing the anterior promotor of the fifth pereiopod.
Branch f arises on the anterior lateral surface of the intermediate endo-
pleurite, while branch g arises just behind it on the posterior surface
of the same ’endopleurite. All these go to the same insertion with
branch a. The muscle pulls the leg base forward. °
134. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 H, 1).—This unbranched muscle
arises on the pleural wall and on the endosternite separating the sixth
and seventh segments. Its insertion is on the proximal postaxial border
of the coxopodite. Its contraction causes the leg base to be drawn
backward.
135 a-c. Musculus levator a-c (fig. 12 H).—The most ventral
branch (@) begins on the anterior wall of the sixth and seventh thoracic
segments. The branch b, originating just above it on the same en-
dosternite, is perhaps not truly distinct from it. The third branch (c)
originates on the lateral part of the membrane covering the anterior
promotor of the fifth pereiopod. These three branches are all inserted
upon a heavy tendon attached to the proximal postaxial rim of the
basi-ischiopodite. The leg base is raised by their contraction.
42 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
136 a-c. Musculus depressor a-e (figs. 12 G, H, I, 13 A).—The first
(a) of the numerous branches to this muscle originates partly on the
posterior wall of the endosternite between the fifth and sixth thoracic
segments, partly on the anterior wall of the endosternite between the
sixth and seventh segments, and partly on the sternal wall between. It
passes to a heavy tendon attached to the tough membrane bordering
the proximal anterior rim of the basi-ischiopodite. The next branch
(b) begins on the endopleurite between the sixth and seventh segments
just above the anterior prolongation of the promotor of the fifth
pereiopod. The next branch (c) lies partly behind branch b, originat-
ing on the endosternite near its fusion with the endopleurite separating
the sixth and seventh segments. Branch d originates anteriorly in the
coxopodite, and branch e posteriorly in the same segment. All these
are inserted on the heavy tendon or on the membrane beside it. Their
mutual contraction pulls the leg base forcibly downward.
137. Musculus reductor meropoditis (figs. 12 1; 13 A).—This fan-
shaped muscle begins in several places on the preaxial part of the
basi-ischiopodite, and is inserted postaxially on the proximal border
of the meropodite. The hinge between these two segments is only
slightly developed preaxially, and not much more so postaxially, so
that the rearward motion imparted by this muscle is slight. It is
opposed by the stiffness of the preaxial connection which causes
the leg to become straightened again after its contraction.
138. Musculus abductor carpopoditis (figs. 12 I, 13 A).—This
large muscle originates in a great many bundles of fibers attached
on the whole dorsal surface of the meropodite from its anterior to its
posterior walls. These bundles run together before their insertion
on a long bladelike tendon which is inserted on the posterior dorsal
proximal border of the carpopodite. This muscle extends the carpopo-
dite so that it lies in a straight line with the meropodite.
139. Musculus adductor carpopoditis (figs. 12 I, 13 A).—This
originates in the same way as the abductor but lies ventrally in its
segment and is inserted similarly by a very long tendon leading to the
anterior ventral proximal border of the carpopodite. This muscle is
therefore in perfect opposition to the adductor, bending the carpopo-
dite at right angles to the meropodite.
140. Musculus productor propoditis (fig. 13 A).—This densely-
fibered fanlike muscle originates on the entire outer border of the
carpopodite, its parts coming together on a heavy leaf-shaped tendon
which is inserted on the proximal median anterior border of the
propodite, to which it gives a strong forward motion.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 43
141. Musculus reductor propoditis (fig. 13 A).—This muscle arises
on the outer and postaxial walls of the carpopodite, narrowing to its
tendinous insertion on the posterior proximal border of the propodite,
which is moved backward by it.
142. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis (fig. 13 A).—This rather
slender and feather-shaped muscle arises in many small fibers on the
preaxial wall of the propodite. It is inserted by a very long bladelike
tendon on the outer proximal edge of the dactylopodite, which is
moved outward by its action.
143. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis (fig. 13 A).—Very similar
to the preceding in shape and size, this muscle arises largely on the
postaxial part of the protopodite and is inserted also on a bladelike
tendon to the inner proximal border of the dactylopodite. The termi-
nal segment is bent strongly toward the midline by this muscle.
THE FOURTH PEREIOPOD
144 a-d. Musculus promotor a-d (fig. 12 J).—The first branch (a)
originates mesally on the endosternite between the seventh and eighth
thoracic segments and is inserted on a heavy tendon attached to the
membrane on the anterior border of the coxopodite. The second
branch (b) originates dorsally to a on the same endosternite and just
below the membrane covering the anteriorly extending promotor
muscle of the fifth pereiopod. The branch c originates partly on the
lateral surface of the membrane of the promotor of the fifth pereiopod
and partly on the endosternite separating the seventh and eighth seg-
ments. The branch d originates on the posterior surface of the inter-
mediate endopleurite, which in this segment is very small. All these
branches are inserted with or beside the first one. The whole muscle
moves the leg base forward.
145. Musculus remotor (fig. 12 L).—As in the three preceding
pereiopods, the remotor of the fourth pereiopod is unbranched. It
originates on the lower surface of the pleural wall, passing outward
and downward to its tendinous insertion on the upper posterior rim of
the coxopodite. It opposes the promotor by bringing the leg backward.
146 a-b. Musculus levator a and b (fig. 12 J, K)—The first branch
(@) originates partly on the posterior wall of the endosternite separat-
ing the sixth and seventh segments above 147 a, and partly on the
anterior wall of the endosternite separating the seventh and eighth
segments. The second branch (0) originates on the anterior wall of the
endosternite between the seventh and eighth segments. It would be
possible to separate this part into smaller subdivisions, as several
44 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
strands go more deeply than others. The branches of this muscle go
to a mutual insertion on a heavy tendon coming from the upper
proximal border of the coxopodite. Their contraction causes the leg
base to be elevated.
147 a-d. Musculus depressor a-d (fig. 12 J, K, L).—The first
branch (a) originates partly on the posterior wall of the endosternite
separating the sixth and seventh segments, partly on the sternal wall
of the seventh segment, and partly on the anterior surface of the
endosternite between the seventh and eighth segments of the thorax.
The second branch (b) lies behind the posterior part of the first
branch, spreading in a fan shape over the endosternite between the
seventh and eighth segments of the thorax. It might be considered
as being more than a single branch, as it is not very compact at
its source. The third and fourth branches (c and d) begin on the
anterior and posterior walls respectively of the coxopodite. All
branches of this muscle go to the same heavy tendon fastened to the
proximal ventral rim of the basi-ischiopodite. The muscle opposes the
levator effectively.
148. Musculus reductor meropoditis.—See 137.
149. Musculus abductor carpopoditis—See 138.
150. Musculus adductor car popoditis—See 139.
151. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140.
152. Musculus reductor propoditis—See 141.
153. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142.
154. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis.—See 143.
THE FIFTH PEREIOPOD
155 a-c. Musculus promotor a-c (fig. 12 M).—The longest and
heaviest branch (@) originates anteriorly on the median plate and
passes posteriorly and laterally to its insertion on the tendon on the
membrane at the anteroventral border of the coxopodite. The next
branch (b) is very prominent, originating on the posterior surface of
the membrane which projects diagonally forward through the pre-
ceding segments and on the anterior surface of which some of the
branches of muscles of the second, third, and fourth pereiopods were
attached. The third branch (c) is the smallest. It arises on the poste-
rior surface of the endosternite between the seventh and eighth seg-
ments, being inserted above branch b on its tendon. The muscle im-
parts a forward motion to the leg.
156aand b. Musculus remotor a-b (fig. 12 M, O).—In this pereio-
pod the remotor differs from the corresponding muscle in the other
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 45
pereiopods in that it is branched and also much more strongly developed
than in the other legs, owing to the fact that it has to give a powerful
backstroke to this fifth leg, which serves as the paddle and which alone
causes the very effective swimming movements of the crab. The first
branch (a) originates dorsally on a T-shaped part of the endopleurite
which is attached mesally on the median plate. The posterior branch
(b) originates on the posterior wall of the eighth segment. Both
branches are inserted on a heavy tendon attached to the membrane
on the proximal postaxial (in this case dorsal) border of the basi-
ischiopodite. The muscle as already stated directs the leg backward.
157 a-c. Musculus levator a-c (fig. 12 M, N).—The large first
branch (@) originates on the median plate just posterior to the first
branch of the promotor. It travels laterally beneath the second branch
of the promotor and beneath the dorsal half of the remotor also, to
its insertion on a heavy tendon attached to the anterior (dorsal) proxi-
mal border of the basi-ischiopodite. The second branch (b) is small
and weak. It originates on the sternum between the main branches of
the promotor and the depressor, and goes upward and laterally to its
insertion on the same tendon. The third branch (c) is a heavy and
strong one, arising on the sternal wall near to the wedge formed by
the first abdominal segment. The entire muscle pulls the leg strongly
upward.
158 a-f. Musculus depressor a-f (fig. 12 M, N, O).—The first
branch (@), very large and heavy, originates mesally on the sternal
wall of the eighth thoracic segment. Branch 0 is very small, originating
laterally on the sternal wall. Branch c parallels the first branch, begin-
ning partly on the sternal wall and partly on the median plate. The
fourth branch (d) originates on the posterior sternal wall at the end
of the thorax. The fifth and sixth branches (e and f) originate on the
dorsal and posterior walls respectively of the coxopodite. All these
branches converge upon an extremely heavy tendon attached to the
proximal preaxial (in this case posterior) border of the basi-ischio-
podite. This extraordinarily powerful muscle pulls the leg base
downward.
159. Musculus reductor meropoditis.—See 137.
160. Musculus abductor carpopoditis—See 138.
161. Musculus adductor carpopoditis—See 139.
162. Musculus productor propoditis—See 140.
163. Musculus reductor propoditis—See 1r4I.
164. Musculus abductor dactylopoditis—See 142.
165. Musculus adductor dactylopoditis—See 143.
40 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
THE PLEOPODS
THE MALE
In the male blue crab, appendages occur only on the first two seg-
ments of the abdomen. The distal abdominal segments are much nar-
rower than in the female, and the third, fourth, and fifth segments
are fused so that their original sutures are scarcely visible, as I have
pointed out earlier in this study.
In the first pleopod of the male the coxopodite is large and partially
sclerotized. The basipodite is irregularly shaped, and its distal border
is a membrane that attaches the long, whiplike flagellum and gives it
the necessary freedom of movement. In this membrane is likewise a
pocket in which the flagellum of the second pleopod normally rests.
The name “ flagellum” is chosen arbitrarily for the distal part of
the pleopod, as it does not show the character of a true flagellum. But
neither is there sufficient evidence for considering it a highly modified
endopodite or exopodite.
The second pleopod is very much weaker than the first, which com-
pletely covers it. Its coxopodite is very thin-walled and partly mem-
branous. A small basipodite is present, controlled by a single muscle
originating in the coxopodite. The basipodite and flagellum are sclero-
tized, but an extensive membrane lies between them, as in the first
pleopod. Preaxially, the basipodite is represented only by a mem-
brane, as its sclerotized part is entirely postaxial in position.
166. Musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurt (fig. 14 A).—
This muscle originates on the ventral surface of the last thoracic
somite just lateral to the origin of the first ventral superficial abdomi-
nal muscle. It is inserted on the inner preaxial proximal border of the
coxopodite, which it erects strongly. This is the only extrinsic muscle
belonging to the first pleopod.
167. Musculus abductor basipoditis I pedis spuri (fig. 14 A).—
Arising on the walls of the outer part of the coxopodite, this muscle
is inserted on the outer proximal margin of the basipodite, which is
pulled away from the center by its contraction.
168. Musculus adductor basipoditis I pedis spur (fig. 14 A).—
This is a heavy muscle arising on the inner proximal walls of the
coxopodite. It is inserted on the inner proximal border of the basipo-
dite, which is pulled toward the center by its action.
169. Musculus abductor fagelli I pedis spuru (fig. 14 A).—This
small and compact muscle arises on the distal postaxial border of the
basipodite, and is attached to the extended proximal edge of the flagel-
lum. It causes the tip of the flagellum to move strongly outward.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 47
170. Musculus promotor coxopoditis II pedis spurii (fig. 14 B).
This heavy muscle arises on the anterior margin of the second abdomi-
nal segment lying entirely beneath the first pleopod. It is inserted on
the inner proximal part of the coxopodite, which is erected by its
contraction.
Bspd W72—Fle
Fic. 14.—The pleopods.
A, the first pleopod of the male.
166, musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 767, musculus abductor
basipoditis I pedis spurii; 168, musculus adductor basipoditis I pedis spurii;
160, musculus abductor flagelli I pedis spurii.
B, the second pleopod of the male.
170, musculus promotor coxopoditis II pedis spurii; 777, musculus adductor
basipoditis II pedis spurii; 172, musculus abductor flagelli II pedis spurii.
C, the first pleopod of the female.
173, musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 774, musculus abductor
coxopoditis I pedis spurii; 775, musculus adductor coxopoditis I pedis spurii;
70, musculus reductor basipoditis I pedis spurii; 777, musculus abductor
exopoditis I pedis spurii; 778, musculus adductor exopoditis I pedis spurii.
71. Musculus adductor basipoditis II pedis spurii (fig. 14 B.)—
Arising in numerous strands on the inner postaxial wall of the coxo-
podite, this muscle is attached to the inner proximal border of the
basipodite, which is brought toward the center by its contraction. No
abductor of the basipodite is present in this appendage, as the elas-
ticity of the membrane apparently gives the necessary opposition to
the adductor.
4
48 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
172. Musculus abductor flagelli II pedis spurw (fig. 14 B).—Like
the corresponding muscle in the first abdominal appendage, this muscle
arises on the lateral part of the wall of the basipodite and terminates
on the proximal preaxial border of the flagellum, which is brought
away from the center as well as slightly forward by its action.
THE FEMALE
The first and sixth abdominal segments of the female blue crab
lack appendages. The second, third, fourth, and fifth segments each
have pleopods which become increasingly smaller posteriorly. The
coxopodite and basipodite are separated by a membrane on the post-
axial surface; preaxially the two are fused. A description of the
muscles pertaining to the first abdominal appendage, attached to the
second abdominal segment, applies to the other three pairs of abdomi-
nal appendages, in which the muscles are similar but weaker.
173. Musculus promotor coxopoditis I pedis spurt (fig. 14 C).—
This muscle arises on the dorsal border of the second abdominal seg-
ment and is inserted on the middle of the preaxial proximal border
of the coxopodite, which it brings strongly forward.
174. Musculus abductor coxopoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C).—
This muscle likewise originates on the dorsal border of the second
abdominal segment lateral to the origin of the promotor. It passes
slightly outward to its insertion on the extreme lateral proximal border
of the coxopodite. The appendage is moved away from the midline
by its action. In the three pleopods which follow this one, the abductor
of the coxopodite takes its origin below and behind that of the pro-
motor muscle, so that in the last pleopod it is nearly obscured by the
promotor when viewed preaxially. This is the only noteworthy differ-
ence in any of the muscles of the following three appendages as com-
pared with those of the first appendage, except that they become
smaller as the appendages themselves decrease in size.
175. Musculus adductor coxopoditis I pedis spuru (fig. 14 C).—
This muscle is much larger than its opponent, the abductor. It arises
on the median dorsal border of the second abdominal somite from
almost the midline to the origin of the promotor. It is inserted at the
extreme median proximal margin of the coxopodite, which it pulls
inward and forward.
176. Musculus reductor basipoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C).—This
is a very short but rather powerful muscle arising laterally along
the proximal posterior border of the coxopodite at the only place
where the fusion is not complete between basipodite and coxopodite.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 49
It runs inward without narrowing to its insertion along the proximal
posterior wall of the basipodite, which is moved backward by its
action.
177. Musculus abductor exopoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C).—
Arising on the lateral anterior border of the basipodite near the inser-
tion of the abductor of the basipodite, the abductor of the exopodite is
inserted on the lateral wall of the exopodite, on which it produces a
feeble outward pull.
178. Musculus adductor exopoditis I pedis spurii (fig. 14 C)—This
rather slender muscle arises on the median proximal preaxial wall of
the basipodite and extends outward to its insertion on the inner proxi-
mal end of the exopodite, which is moved inward by its pull.
There are no muscles to govern the endopodite, which moves only
as the basipodite moves.
179. Musculus promotor coxopoditis II pedis spurii—See 173.
180. Musculus abductor coxopoditis II pedis spurti—See 174.
181. Musculus adductor coxopoditis IT pedis spurii—See 175.
182. Musculus reductor basipoditis II pedis spurii.—See 176.
183. Musculus abductor exopoditis II pedis spurii—See 177.
184. Musculus adductor exopoditis II pedis spurii—See 178.
185. Musculus promotor coxopoditis IIT pedis spurii—See 173.
186. Musculus abductor coxopoditis III pedis spurii—See 174.
187. Musculus adductor coxopoditis III pedis spurii—See 175.
188. Musculus reductor basipoditis III pedis spurii—See 176.
189. Musculus abductor exopoditis III pedis spurii—See 177.
190. Musculus adductor exopoditis III pedis spurii—See 178.
191. Musculus promotor coxopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 173.
192. Musculus abductor coxopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 174.
193. Musculus adductor coxopoditis IV pedis spuriiSee 175.
194. Musculus reductor basipoditis IV pedis spurit—See 176.
195. Musculus abductor exopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 177.
196. Musculus adductor exopoditis IV pedis spurii—See 178.
THE SKELETON
A brief survey of some of the skeletal peculiarities found in the blue
crab is not out of place in a study of its myology, since the shape of
the skeleton and the arrangement of the muscles attached upon it are
mutually interdependent.
The segments of the head and thorax of the crab are immovably
ankylosed, as I have repeatedly emphasized. To some extent, this
fact simplifies the musculature, as it at once precludes the presence of
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
true trunk muscles which are necessary only when the segments move
individually. (See figs. 15 and 16.)
The muscles of the last five thoracic segments are separated inter-
nally by a series of irregularly shaped partitions. Each of these par-
titions consists of two thin plates, formed by the anterior wall of one
segment closely applied to the posterior wall of the preceding segment.
Fic. 16.—Ventral view of the blue crab.
The lower half of each partition is formed by a pair of the plates
arising from the sternal borders of neighboring segments and is called
an endosternite. The upper half of each partition is similarly formed
by a pair of the plates which originate on the pleural walls of neigh-
boring segments and is called an endopleurite. Each endosternite
coalesces with its corresponding endopleurite, and it is at this line of
coalition that the break occurs during ecdysis to allow the crab to
molt completely. (See figs. 17 and 18.)
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN SI
Fic. 17.—Dorsal view of thorax with carapace removed to show internal
skeletal parts.
I-V'IITI, first through eighth somites of thorax.
|
|
|
| | beri | |
abe, Hiv V VI VI Vill
Fic. 18.—Lateral section of thorax showing internal skeletal parts.
I-V IIT, first through eighth somites of thorax.
to
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
on
The endosternites and endopleurites formed in the manner just
described are entirely intersegmental. A secondary infolding of the
pleural wall occurs, however, in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh
thoracic segments. To this infolded structure, which is strictly intra-
segmental, I have given the name of secondary endopleurite. No cor-
responding infolding occurs in the sternal parts of these segments.
The secondary endopleurite is firmly attached at its inner margin to
the anterior surface of the membrane encasing the promotor of the
fifth pereiopod. The remotor muscle always finds its origin behind
the secondary endopleurite, while some of the branches of the depres-
sor and levator do so likewise in certain segments. This indicates
that these partitions are in truth only secondary, since the remotor of
a particular segment would not arise outside its own segment.
The endoskeletal partitions of the last five segments of the thorax
present an interesting complexity due to the overdevelopment of the
fifth pereiopod, as I have already noted. The muscle attachments of
this pereiopod have been increased by the forward prolongation of a
branch of the promotor muscle through the three preceding segments.
The pocketlike membrane that encases this part of the muscle serves
as a place of attachment for the several endopleurites where they
meet the endosternites, as well as for the secondary endopleurites, and
these attachments hold it firmly in place to resist the heavy pull which
the muscle exerts upon it. The anterior termination of this pro-
longation may be seen upon the posterior wall of the fourth thoracic
segment, where it appears as an oval, semi-transparent window partly
separating the endopleurite and endosternite lying between the fourth
and fifth thoracic segments.
Although the median plate extends forward as far as the endoster-
nite separating the first and second pereiopods, it serves exclusively
as a place of origin for branches of the four basal muscles of the
telopodite of the fifth pereiopod. Some part of each of these muscles
originates upon the median plate, although none of the muscles origi-
nates entirely upon it.
The third maxilliped and the first pereiopod bear a pair of gills,
which lie side by side in the gill chamber. The second maxilliped like-
wise possesses two gills, one of which lies in the extreme anterior part
of the gill chamber in front of the gills belonging to the pereiopods,
and which can be distinguished from them only by its smaller size and
its anterior position. The other gill of the second maxilliped lies at
right angles to the first, extending outward and backward from the
anterior corner of the gill chamber. The second and third pereiopods
each possess a single gill. The first maxilliped and the fourth and
fifth pereiopods lack gills.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 53
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE CRUSTACEAN APPENDAGE
In order to understand the true relationships between the exceed-
ingly diverse and often highly specialized crustaceans that exist today,
it is a matter of importance to attempt to reconstruct a generalized
ancestral type, from which all these existing divergences may have
arisen by various evolutionary processes.
A typical leg of any of the higher crustaceans consists of not more
than seven segments, including the basal segment called the coxopo-
dite, which is followed by the basipodite bearing the endopodite of
five segments, each segment having a pair of muscles to move it. Any
or all of these seven segments may be provided with exites—lobes
growing on the external part of the limb, or endites—lobes growing on
the internal part of the limb. These exites and endites, when they
are large and movable, may have special muscles of their own.
In the insects the basal segment of the leg is obviously divided into
a coxa and a subcoxa, the latter forming sclerotized plates in the
pleural wall of the thorax. In the crustaceans it is possible to trace a
similar development of the limb basis. Consequently, we may look
upon the coxopodite as being equivalent to the coxa of the insect,
while the sternal and possibly the pleural regions of the thorax in the
blue crab represent the subcoxal regions of the legs of the insect.
The coxopodite is sometimes ankylosed with the basipodite, in
which case the resulting structure goes by the name of protopodite.
The coxopodite may exist by itself, as in the mandible and the two
maxillae of the isopod and the amphipod (fig. 21 A, B, C; fig. 22 A,
B, C), or it may give rise to a basipodite with or without an exopodite
and endopodite. The coxopodite may have one or more epipodites
(fig. 24 E, F), which are usually gill-like, nonsegmented structures
forming a part of the respiratory system.
In the lower crustaceans the leg has an exopodite as well as an en-
dopodite, both of which always arise from the basipodite. In the higher
crustaceans the exopodite still persists in the maxillipeds and the
pleopods.
The exopodite may have any number of joints, and its distal part
may be modified to form a flagellum, as in the maxilliped and true
legs of the mysid (fig. 19 D; fig. 20 A, B, C). The endopodite, on the
contrary, is very definitely limited to a maximum of five segments.
Frequently, the distal segments are not present, and some of the
proximal ones may have ankylosed. The endopodite exists in its
typical form as a walking leg in the higher crustaceans, the names
of its segments being the ischiopodite, the meropodite, the carpopo-
dite, the propodite, and the dactylopodite. The typical crustacean leg
has two principal places for bending—one at the basal joint between
54 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
the coxopodite and the basipodite, and the other at the “knee ” joint
between the meropodite and the carpopodite. Hence there are typically
three segments between the basal joint and the “ knee ” joint, and three
Fic. 19.—Appendages of Michtheimysis stenole pis.
A, the mandible.
B, the first maxilla.
C, the second maxilla.
D, the first maxilliped.
Bspd, basipodite; Crpd, carpopodite; C.xrpd, coxopodite; Dcpd, dactylopodite ;
End, endite; Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite; Flb, flabellum; Jscpd, ischiopo-
dite; Mrpd, meropodite ; Prpd, propodite ; Prtpd, protopodite.
more beyond the ‘“‘ knee” joint. When fewer segments occur in either
section, we may know that the leg is not entirely typical. For instance,
in the second maxilliped of the amphipod (fig. 23 A), only two seg-
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 55
ments occur distal to the “ knee” joint, and therefore we know that
the dactylopodite is absent or fused. In the leg of the blue crab
(fig. 12 A, B), two movable segments occur between the basal joint
and the “knee” joint. One can easily see in this case that the
Fic. 20.—Appendages of Michtheimysis stenolepis.
A, the second maxilliped.
B, the third maxilliped.
C, the fifth pereiopod.
Bspd, basipodite; Crpd, carpopodite; Cxpd, coxopodite; Depd, dactylopodite ;
Eppd, epipodite; Expd, exopodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd,
propodite; Prtpd, protopodite.
basipodite is nearly ankylosed with the ischiopodite, the resulting
structure thereby becoming a basi-ischiopodite. In the leg of the
higher crustaceans the exopodite is absent. The basipodite plus the
endopodite is often referred to as the telopodite.
50 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
|
|
|
|
|
Cxpd Bs-Iscpd Mrpd Cr |
Fic. 21.—Appendages of Ligia exotica.
pd Prpd Depa
A, the mandible.
B, the first maxilla.
C, the second maxilla.
D, the maxilliped.
E, the first pereiopod.
Bnd, endite of the basipodite; Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite; Bspd, basipodite ;
Depd, dactylopodite; End, endite; Endpd, endopodite; Eppd, epipodite; E-,
exite; Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN
A
Fic. 22.—Appendages of Orchestoidea califormiana.
A, the mandible.
B, the first maxilla.
C, the second maxilla.
D, the first maxilliped.
Bspd, basipodite ; Cxpd, coxopodite; End, endite; Endpd, endopodite.
B/;
58
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Cc : pd Bspa iene
cid “plod Jaa tena er Prpa
Fig. 23—Appendages of Orchestoidea californiana.
A, the second maxilliped.
B, the third maxilliped.
C, the fifth pereiopod.
Bspd, basipodite; Crpd, carpopodite; Cxrpd, coxopodite; Iscpd, ischiopodite ;
Mrpd, meropodite; Prpd, propodite; Ptg, paratergite.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 59
Zi _
jj
iI]
AN \W \) I)
QQ
NY /,
‘ \
WW y
Fic. 24.—Appendages of Penaeus setiferus.
A, the mandible. :
B, the first maxilla.
C, the second maxilla.
D, the first maxilliped.
E, the second maxilliped.
F, the third maxilliped.
Add, tendon of the adductor muscle of the mandible; Bnd, endite of .the
basipodite; Bspd, basipodite; Cex, exite of the coxopodite; Capd, coxopodite;
Expd, exopodite; Prtpd, protopodite; Scg, scaphognathite.
60 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
When more than seven segments appear to be visible externally, as
is the case in the syncarid Anaspides, the additional supposed seg-
ments are due to slight creases or furrows in the body wall and are
not true segments with their necessary complement of muscle. Some
shrimps also apparently have many additional segments in the distal
part of the legs, but neither are these true segments, as their myology
proves.
The so-called exopodite of the trilobite leg arises on the actual basal
segment of the limb, and the question has been raised as to whether
it is a true exopodite or an epipodite. If it is an exopodite homologous
with that of living crustaceans, then it throws the trilobite definitely
into the class Crustacea. If, on the other hand, it is an epipodite, then
it makes the trilobite ancestral to all the Arthropoda so far as the
structure of its legs is concerned.
PART II. THE OSSICLES AND MUSCLES OF THE STOMACH
Although it was not at first intended to do more than list the muscles
of the appendages, the structure of the stomach appeared to be so
interesting that I have prepared a second part to my paper including
the muscles of the stomach and listing the ossicles on which they find
their attachment. The literature on the stomach muscles is even less
extensive than is that on the appendage muscles, and I find that some
of the muscles of the pyloric region of the stomach of decapod crus-
taceans have not been figured or described.
It is logical to include the stomach muscles in the same paper with
the muscles of the appendages that originate on the body wall, for
developmental studies of invertebrates have demonstrated that the
gastric mill is merely an invaginated part of the body wall, so that
the muscles pertaining to it are as truly “‘ skeletal” as are those of
the appendages.
The word “ stomach ” is, as a matter of fact, a misnomer. The en-
larged part of the alimentary canal immediately following the esopha-
gus, although popularly referred to as a stomach, is a part of the
stomodaeum of arthropods and performs the same function as does
the gizzard in birds—that is, to pulverize the fragments of food and
render them small enough to be acted upon effectively by the true
digestive juices, which are secreted in the pylorus, a relatively small
section of the alimentary canal which follows the stomodaeum.
But it is convenient to speak of the whole structure from the mouth
to the beginning of the intestine as the “ stomach.” As this has been
done in most of the preceding discussions by former authors, the term
has been used in the present discussion in the same broad sense.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—-COCHRAN 61
OSSICLES OF THE STOMACH
In order to give the necessary rigidity to the stomach in the break-
ing up of food particles to aid in their rapid assimilation, the stomach
is equipped with a complicated mechanism composing the so-called
“gastric mill.” A series of strategically placed ossicles gives places
of attachment externally to the muscles, and inside the stomach most
of the ossicles are tooth-bearing so that they may effectively pulverize
the food before it passes on to the next stage of digestion. These
ossicles may be considered under separate headings according to their
function and position.
‘
OSSIGCLES OF THE ~ GASTRIC MILL
I. Mesocardiac ossicle. Single-——This small median ossicle lies in
the dorsal wall of the cardiac region of the stomach and is almost
completely fused with the urocardiac ossicle, which lies behind it. In
front it is bounded on either side by the pterocardiac ossicles. It gives
a firm attachment to the anterior ends of the cardiopyloric muscles,
since it is especially thickened at this point. (Figs. 25 A, 27, 28.)
II. Pterocardiac ossicles. One pair—tThese ossicles lie on either
side of the foregoing and meet each other in front of it, projecting on
either side with their wing-shaped outer ends nearly at right angles to
the midline of the stomach. One of the pair of anterior gastric muscles
(197) is inserted on the widened inner border of each ossicle. The
attenuate tip of the ossicle approaches the outer border of the zygo-
cardiac ossicle, with which it is closely connected. (Figs. 25 A, 27, 28.)
III. Zygocardiac ossicles. One pair—tThis pair of ossicles lies in
the superolateral wall of the cardiac region of the stomach and is the
largest and strongest of the ossicles. Externally, they appear as
slender curved structures, the anterior end in close connection with
the tips of the pterocardiac ossicles, and their posterior end with the
exopyloric ossicles. When the stomach is opened, the zygocardiac
ossicles are found to project inward, thickening greatly and bearing on
their inner opposed surfaces the “ lateral teeth,” consisting of one very
heavy denticle of tough chitinous material followed by two smaller
single ones and by a double row composed altogether of about 20 very
pointed small denticles, directed inward and growing smaller in size
posteriorly, the area between them without ridges. (Figs. 25 A, B,
26, 27.)
IV. Exopyloric ossicles. One pair—rThese ossicles appear exter-
nally as short and nearly straight structures lying diagonally near the
lateral posterior border of the stomach. The outer end of each ossicle
62 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
IV Vit Vi B
Fic. 25.—External views of stomach showing ossicles.
A, ossicles of the fully distended stomach viewed from above, all muscles re-
moved.
I, mesocardiac ossicle; //, pterocardiac ossicle; I//, zygocardiac ossicle; IV’,
exopyloric ossicle; , urocardiac ossicle; VJ, propyloric ossicle; V///, pyloric
ossicle.
B, ossicles of the posterior wall of stomach and dorsal pyloric region.
IV, exopyloric ossicle; VJ, propyloric ossicle; VII, pyloric ossicle; XIV,
anterior mesopyloric ossicle; XJ’, posterior mesopyloric ossicle; X/’/, urpyloric
ossicle; X N/V’, middle pleuropyloric ossicle; Pl’, pyloric valve.
C, ventral view of stomach, walls partly collapsed, all muscles removed.
IIT, zygocardiac ossicle; 1X, prepectineal ossicle; NJ, inferolateral cardiac
ossicle; XVII, antero-inferior pyloric ossicle; XVJII, pre-ampullary ossicle ;
XIX, postero-inferior pyloric ossicle; XX, anterior supra-ampullary ossicle.
Amp, ampulla; CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plates; CdPI, posterolateral cardiac
plates; Cpl’, cardiopyloric valve; Oe, esophagus.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 63
is directly behind the posterior termination of the zygocardiac ossicle,
to which it is closely articulated, and its inner upper border is the point
of insertion for the outer cardiopyloric muscle (210 a). Inwardly,
the ossicles project as small triangular plates lying below the median
tooth of the urocardiac ossicle. (Figs. 25 A, B, 26, 27.)
V. Urocardiac ossicle. Single—This ossicle is a broad, shield-
shaped median plate which is almost completely fused with the meso-
cardiac ossicle on its anterior border. It projects backward and finally
1D. Gre Il Xi
| /
yh :
MN S|
Vill. X XE XI XX/XXI Amp
XVI
Fic. 26.—Lateral view of stomach showing ossicles after removal of all muscles.
III, zygocardiac ossicle; JV, exopyloric ossicle; VJ, propyloric ossicle; V JJ,
pyloric ossicle; III, pectineal ossicle; JX, prepectineal ossicle; X, postpectineal
ossicle; XJ, inferolateral cardiac ossicle; X/J, subdentary ossicle; XIII, lateral
cardiopyloric ossicle; XIV, anterior mesopyloric ossicle; XV, posterior meso-
pyloric ossicle; XVI, uropyloric ossicle; XVIII, pre-ampullary ossicle; Oe
anterior supra-ampullary ossicle; X XJ, middle supra-ampullary ossicle; XXII,
posterior supra-ampullary ossicle ; X XJJJ, anterior pleuropyloric ossicle; XXIV,
middle pleuropyloric ossicle.
Amp, ampulla; CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plate; CdPI, posterolateral cardiac
plate; Oe, esophagus.
downward as an elongate, heavy plate, articulating with the inner
termination of the propyloric ossicle. On its ventral (inner) surface
it bears the heavy, ridged median tooth which opposes the lateral teeth
of the zygocardiac ossicles. (Figs. 25 A, 27, 28.)
VI. Propyloric ossicle. Single-——This appears externally as a small,
curved, median ossicle lying in the dorsal wall of the stomach, its
outer end just behind the inner terminations of the exopyloric ossicles
and articulating closely with them by a short bar of cartilagelike tissue.
Upon dissection, the inner part of this ossicle appears triangular in
shape, its inner point meeting the uropyloric ossicle at its posterior end
5
Se
64 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
and serving to give rigidity to the median tooth. (Figs. 25 A, B,
20,27.)
VII. Pyloric ossicles. One pair—These strongly convex, triangu-
lar structures lie between the exopyloric ossicles, with which they
articulate on either side, and extend behind the propyloric ossicle,
entirely on the surface of the stomach. They give attachment to the
inner posterior gastric muscles. There is a ligamentous connection
ap
uit
Seay,
Xl X VIII. Amp
Fic. 27.—Internal view of stomach cut slightly to one side of the median line to
show relative positions of the “teeth.”
I, mesocardiac ossicle; J/, pterocardiac ossicle; ///, zygocardiac ossicle; IV,
exopyloric ossicle; , urocardiac ossicle; J, propyloric ossicle; V JJ, pyloric
ossicle; VIII, pectineal ossicle; /X, prepectineal ossicle; X, postpectineal
ossicle; XJ, inferolateral cardiac ossicle.
Amp, ampulla; CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plate; CdPI, posterolateral cardiac
plate; Cpl, cardiopyloric valve; Oc, esophagus.
between them, but they do not appear to be fused into one structure,
as in the case in the European Cancer pagurus. (Figs. 25, A. B, 26, 27.)
CARDIAC ‘SUPPORTING OSSICLES ”
VIII. Pectineal ossicles. One pair—tThese ossicles lie in the lateral
wall of the stomach between the lower posterior end of the prepectineal
and the upper posterior end of the postpectineal ossicles. Externally,
they appear as relatively small, semicircular structures, but internally,
they are seen to bear a distinct brushlike cluster of six or seven long
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 05
clawlike teeth, which are called the “lateral accessory teeth.” (Figs.
26:27, 25s)
IX. Prepectineal ossicles. One pair—These slender, curved, rod-
like ossicles, lying entirely on the lateral stomach wall, extend upward
and forward from the pectineal ossicle to the outer anterior end of
the zygocardiac ossicle with which they articulate by a cartilagelike
este: (Giies, 25 'C;'26;'27. 287)
Cd Al Cd PI CpV
Fic. 28.—Internal view of posterior part of stomach, the anterior parts being
dissected away to show the “ gastric mill.”
I, mesocardiac ossicle; JI, pterocardiac ossicle; J//, zygocardiac ossicle; V,
urocardiac ossicle; /’I//, pectineal ossicle; /X, prepectineal ossicle.
CdAl, anterolateral cardiac plate; CdPl, posterolateral cardiac plate; CpV,
cardiopyloric valve.
X. Postpectineal ossicles. One pair—Passing downward and for-
ward from the posterior margin of the pectineal ossicle, these ossicles,
also slender and rodlike, merge with the ventral wall of the stomach
below the posterolateral cardiac plates. For the greater part of their
length they lie closely in contact with the inferolateral cardiac ossicles,
which can scarcely be distinguished from them at their anteroventral
termination. (Figs. 26, 27.)
XI. Inferolateral cardiac ossicles. One pair—These ossicles are in
contact with the subdentary ossicles near their posterior termination,
66 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
but as they go forward and downward along the ventral wall of the
stomach, they soon join the postpectineal ossicles, as noted in the
preceding paragraph. Seen from below, these ossicles are found to be
wide posteriorly, tapering as they converge anteriorly. (Figs. 25 C,
20, 27.)
XIT. Subdentary ossicles. One pair —Each of these ossicles, some-
what curved and boomerang-shaped externally, is in contact on its
upper margin with the zygocardiac ossicle. Ventrally each is attached
by a cartilagelike tissue to the inferolateral cardiac ossicle just at its
posterior point of attachment to the postpectineal ossicle. (Fig. 26.)
XIII. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicles. One pair—These extremely
small curved ossicles lie behind the inferolateral cardiac ossicles and
are attached on their lower posterior border to the anterior supra-
ampullary ossicles. (Fig. 26.)
Cd Al. Anterolateral cardiac plates. One pair—These rhombic
membranous plates lie directly in front of the posterolateral cardiac
plates but are much less clearly defined. There is no heavy calcification
in these plates, but the anterodorsal margin is stiffened into a ridge
that is slightly thicker than the remaining membrane of the plate. (Figs.
25. C20, 27254)
Cd Pl. Posterolateral cardiac plates. One pair —These broad plates,
nearly triangular in shape, lie above and in front of the postpectineal
ossicle. Although most of the surface is membranous, each plate has
a hammer-shaped calcification extending along its upper and anterior
borders, to give attachment to the lateral cardiac muscles. The inner
posterior border of each plate has several rows of bristles, which
project into the stomach. (Figs. 25 C, 26, 27, 28.)
Cp V. Cardiopyloric valve—This valve lies in the ventral posterior
part of the stomach, bounded at each side by a posterolateral cardiac
plate. It is approximately tongue-shaped, and the thickened posterior
end is provided with bristles. It regulates the entrance of triturated
material into the intestine. (Figs. 25 C, 27, 28.)
‘
PYLORIC ‘‘ SUPPORTING OSSICLES ”
The three following pairs of ossicles are found in the dorsal wall
of the pyloric foregut, which is bent so that it is now directed
posteriorly.
XIV. Anterior mesopyloric ossicles. One pair—These small angu-
lar ossicles project sharply from the membrane surrounding them.
They are near the median line and below and posterior to the pyloric
ossicle (VII). (Figs. 25 B, 26.)
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 67
XV. Posterior mesopyloric ossicles. One pair—tThese ossicles lie
directly below the preceding. They are roughly crescentic in shape and
are connected by a thin membrane. (Figs. 25 C, 26.)
XVI. Uropyloric ossicles. One pair—These very slender, angu-
larly-bent ossicles are found behind the posterior mesopyloric ossicles
in the roof of the pyloric region, now forming the posterior termina-
tion of the stomach. (Figs. 25 B, 26.)
PV. Pyloric valves. One pair—tThese valves project posteriorly
from the cartilagelike tissue which lies posteriorly behind the uro-
pyloric ossicles (XV) in the dorsal wall of the pyloric region. (Fig.
Zee Ey.)
The ventral wall of the pyloric foregut bears the following ossicles:
XVII. Antero-inferior pyloric ossicle. Single -——This median rhom-
boid plate is transversely widened and lies immediately in front of the
ampullae. Its widest base is anteriorly in contact with the cardio-
pylone valve, (Hie. 25.C:)
XVIII. Pre-ampullary ossicles. One pair—These two very small
ossicles project from the region just behind the outer border of the
antero-inferior pyloric ossicle and a short distance in front of the
pyloric ampullae. (Figs. 25 C, 26.)
XIX. Postero-inferior pyloric ossicle. Single—This small bow-
shaped ossicle lies behind the inter-ampullary groove. It is not heavily
calcified and therefore is not very apparent at first glance. (Fig. 25 C.)
XX. Anterior supra-ampullary ossicles. One pair—Each one of
this pair of ossicles is a small semicircular, heavily calcified projection,
which appears just below and in contact with the lateral cardiopyloric
ossicle and behind the supra-ampullary ossicle. (Figs. 25 C, 26.)
XXI. Middle supra-ampullary ossicles. One pair —Each one of this
pair of short, straight ossicles lies in a vertical position below the pre-
ceding and above the ampullae. (Fig. 26.)
XXII. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicles. One pair—These semi-
circular ossicles lie close together below the ampullae, and terminate
the series of ossicles supporting the pyloric region posteriorly. (Fig.
26: )
The following ossicles occur in the pleuropyloric walls:
XXIII. Anterior pleuropyloric ossicles. One pair —This very heav-
ily calcified, triangular structure projects strongly from the side wall
of the stomach in front of the anterior mesopyloric ossicle (XIV).
It is continued as a long forked calcareous projection leading forward
and downward externally along the stomach wall. (Fig. 26.)
XXIV. Middle pleuropyloric ossicles. One pair—Attached to one
of the forks of the calcareous projection of the preceding ossicle is
68 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
a rounded but equally prominent ossicle, which is arbitrarily called the
middle pleuropyloric. The posterior pleuropyloric ossicle seems to be
lacking in the blue crab. It is named but not figured by Pearson
(1908) in his study of Cancer pagurus (p. 103). (Figs. 25 B, 26.)
MUSCLES OF THE ALIMENTARY SYSTEM
For the sake of conformity with the writings of other authors, the
muscles of the alimentary system are discussed according to their ori-
gin, following the definition of Mocquard,’ who recognized two sets of
muscles—first, the extrinsic, in which the points of origin are on some
part of the body skeletal system and which are inserted on ossicles
lying in the walls of the stomach, and second, the intrinsic, which are
attached at both ends to stomach ossicles or to thickened parts of the
stomach membrane.
EXTRINSIC MUSCLES
The following three sets of muscles help to work the gastric mill:
197. Musculus gastricus anterior. One pair—KEach muscle of this
pair has its origin on the cervical membrane and extends backward,
gradually convergent toward the midline. They are attached side by
side on the inner anterior part of the pterocardiac ossicle (//). These
muscles are the most readily detected of any of the stomach muscles,
as their large size and dorsal position bring them conspicuously to
view as soon as the carapace is broken in that region. (Figs. 29, 30.)
198. Musculus gastricus posterior mesalis. One pair.—These
muscles arise from two small calcareous projections on the under side
of the carapace at the median part of the mesogastric region. There is
a distinct transverse indentation or channel on the outside of the
carapace, which indicates the position of attachment of these muscles,
as well as that of the external posterior gastric muscles and the dorsal
pyloric muscles to be mentioned later. The inner posterior gastric
muscles extend forward and downward to their attachment on the
pyloric ossicle (VII). These muscles are not so heavy as the anterior
gastric muscles (197) just described. (Figs. 29, 30.)
199 a and b. Musculus gastricus posterior lateralis. Two pairs a
and b—These muscles arise from the under side of the mesogastric
region in the outer part of the same channel which marks the origin
of the inner posterior gastric muscles (798) discussed above. They
extend downward and forward, converging as they go, and the median
*Mocquard, F., Recherches anatomiques sur l’estomac des Crustacés podoph-
thalmaires. Ann. Sci. Nat., 6 ser., Zool., vol. 16, p. 238, 1883.
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 69
ones (199 b) are inserted just below the inner end of the exopyloric
ossicle (JV) near the end of the propyloric ossicle (V/), while the
external pair (790 a) are inserted on the outer half of the exopyloric
ossicle (VJ). The outer and inner posterior gastric muscles seen in
their natural positions resemble the spokes of an opened fan, being
nearly alike in size and length and converging at somewhat similar
angles to their respective points of insertion. (Figs. 29, 30.)
[|
i
Camenemimy
E <— Loy
204a 204b 198 199b 199a
Fic. 29.—Muscles of the stomach viewed from above.
197, musculus gastricus anterior; 208, musculus gastricus posterior mesalis ;
199a and b, musculus gastricus posterior lateralis a and b; 200, musculus dila-
tator anterior superior ventriculi; 204a and b, musculus dilatator dorsalis pylorici
anterior a and b; 2Z0a and b, musculi cardiopylorici a and b; 273, musculus
cardiacus anterior mesalis; 274, musculus cardiacus anterior lateralis.
The following muscles dilate the stomach:
200. Musculus dilatator anterior superior ventriculi. One pair.—
Each muscle arises from the inner side of the cervical membrane im-
mediately behind the orbit. The body of the muscle extends inward
and backward, dividing very soon into a dozen or more slender fibers
which diverge widely to their points of insertion at various places on
the anterior upper and outer walls of the stomach. These fibers are
exceedingly delicate. (Figs. 29, 30.)
7O SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
201. Musculus dilatator anterior inferior ventricult. One pair.—
The muscles of this pair are extremely attenuate and difficult to sepa-
rate from the antero-superior dilator muscle of the foregut (206) at
their common origin on the upper part of the epistome. A careful
tracing shows that the former pair is inserted on the lower anterior
wall of the ventriculus above and behind the termination of the esopha-
200 203 197 202 2lla 2llb dalle 2lid 2lle 210a 199b 198
21Ge
215 208 209 205b 205a 216m 216] 216i 216F 21Gh 216¢
Fic. 30.—Lateral view showing muscles of the stomach.
197, musculus gastricus anterior; z98, musculus gastricus posterior mesalis;
199a and b, musculus gastricus posterior lateralis a and b; 200, musculus dilatator
anterior superior ventriculi; 207, musculus dilatator anterior inferior ventricul1;
202, musculus dilatator lateralis anterior ventriculi; 203, musculus dilatator
lateralis posterior ventriculi; 204a and b, musculus dilatator dorsalis pylorici
anterior a and b; 205a and b, musculus dilatator pylorici inferior a and b;
206, musculus dilatator anterior superior oesophagei; 207, musculus dilatator
anterior inferior oesophagei; 208, musculus dilatator lateralis oesophagei; 209,
musculus dilatator posterior oesophagei; 2z0a, musculus cardiopylorici a;
2I1a-g, musculi interiores cardiaci laterales a-g; 215, musculi circumoesophagei ;
2I6a-n, musculi pylorici a-n.
gus. The connectives of the cerebral ganglion pass diagonally across
them. (Fig. 30.)
202. Musculus dilatator lateralis anterior ventriculi. One pair.—
These muscles arise on the roof of the prebranchial chamber and pass
inward and downward to their insertion on the upper margin of the
anterolateral cardiac plate (Cd Al). They are not very firmly knit and
may be torn away with the tissues surrounding the stomach. (Fig. 30.)
203. Musculus dilatator lateralis posterior ventriculi. One pair.—
Arising on the roof of the prebranchial chamber, these muscles pass
NO. Q MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 71
inward through the sheetlike sinus tissue, widening somewhat as they
approach their insertion along the anterior edge of the hammer-shaped
calcification in the posterolateral cardiac plate (Cd Pl). (Fig. 30.)
204 aand b. Musculus dilatator dorsalis pylorici anterior a and b.
Two pairs—The two muscles on each side run close together at their
origin, so that they are not readily separable. They arise directly below
the origin of the inner posterior gastric muscle (198), being attached
to the lower end of the same calcareous projection of the inner sur-
face of the carapace at the median part of the mesogastric region. Both
pairs of dorsal pyloric muscles pass downward and forward as ribbon-
like bundles of muscle fibers. The anterior and upper of the two pairs
(204 a) is inserted on the anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (XX///),
while the posterior and lower pair (204 b) terminates on the posterior
mesopyloric ossicle (XV) ; thus at their insertions they are entirely
separate. (Figs. 29, 30.)
205 a and b. Musculus dilatator pylorici inferior a and b. Two
pairs —Each slender muscle of the outer pair (203 a) originates on
the endopleurite of the first maxillary segment, passing backward
and upward to its insertion on the pre-ampullary ossicle (XVIII).
The muscles of the inner pair (203 b), much longer than the outer
but equally attenuate, arise near the base of the mandibular apophysis,
thence passing close to the sides of the esophagus and the posterior
wall of the cardiac region, and are inserted on the antero-inferior
pyloric ossicles (XVJI) in the ventral wall of the pyloric region.
For the last half of their course, the muscles of this inner pair lie so
near together that the two appear to be one. (Fig. 30.)
The following muscles dilate the esophagus :
206. Musculus dilatator anterior superior oesophagei. One pair.—
Fach of these muscles arises from the epistome near the midline and
just beside the median projection from which spring the basal ocular
muscles. Diverging backward and downward, the muscles widen con-
siderably at their insertion on the upper wall of the esophagus. (Fig.
30.)
207. Musculus dilatator anterior inferior oesophaget. One pair.—
These muscles are nearly indistinguishable from the preceding at
their origin on the epistome, but they pass straight downward to an
insertion in a more anterior position on the esophagus. (Fig. 30.)
208. Musculus dilatator lateralis oesophagei. One pair —This muscle
springs from the posterior angle of the epistome, diverging consider-
ably as it approaches the esophagus, on the lateral wall of which the
various fibers find their attachments, just below those of the preced-
ing muscle. (Fig. 30.)
i
72 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
209. Musculus dilatator posterior oesophaget. One pair—vThis
muscle is small and not easily distinguishable, lying as it does within
the web of tissues surrounding the stomach. It arises on the endo-
pleurite of the first maxillary segment, passing backward and over the
inner ventral pyloric dilator (205 b) to its insertion on the lateral
wall of the esophagus just posterior to the insertion of the lateral
dilator of the esophagus (208). (Fig. 30.)
INTRINSIC MUSCLES
210 a and b. Musculi cardiopylorici a and b. A median and two
lateral—The median muscle (b) extends from the thickened posterior
border of the mesocardiac ossicle (J) to the upper central edge of the
propyloric ossicle (VJ). The lateral muscles (@) extend from the
mesocardiac ossicle (J) to the inner end of the exopyloric ossicle (IV),
diverging slightly posteriorly. These muscles oppose the movements
of the extrinsic gastric muscles. (Figs. 29, 30.)
211 a-g. Musculi interiores cardiaci laterales a-g. Seven pairs—
These muscles all run more or less dorsoventrally on the lateral wall
of the stomach. (Fig. 30.) In the following list, the dorsal insertion
is named first:
a. Hammer-shaped ossicle in the posterolateral cardiac plate (Cd
P1) to the inferolateral cardiac ossicle (XJ).
b. Prepectineal ossicle (7X ) to inferolateral ossicle (XJ).
c. Zygocardiac ossicle (///) to inferolateral ossicle (X/).
d. Zygocardiac ossicle (///) to anterior supra-ampullary ossicle
(AX):
e. Zygocardiac ossicle (///) to anterior supra-ampullary ossicle
(XX) ; perhaps this and the preceding should be considered as parts
of the same muscle because they have their origins and insertions on
the same ossicles, although not on the same points of the ossicles.
f. Exopyloric ossicle (JV) to anterior pleuropyloric ossicle
CG:
g. Pyloric ossicle (VJ/) to anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (XXJIJ/).
212. Musculus cardiacus posterior inferior. One pair.—This muscle
is composed of short fibers attached on the sides to the inferolateral
cardiac ossicle (X/) and coming almost together at the median line,
where they are attached to each side of a projecting ridge running
down the center of the cardiopyloric valve. These muscles cannot be
seen until the outer and inner lower dilators of the pylorus have been
removed, as well as the obscuring branches m and m of the pyloric
muscle. (Not figured.)
NO. 9 MUSCULATURE OF THE BLUE CRAB—COCHRAN 73
213. Musculus cardiacus anterior mesalis. Single—If one detaches
the anterior gastric muscles carefully, the weak and poorly developed
strands of the anterior cardiac muscle may be seen. It arises under-
neath the former, in front of the anterior median part of the meso-
cardiac ossicle (/), passing forward and downward over the ante-
rior wall of the stomach, and dividing into numerous fibers before it
reaches its attachment above the esophagus. (Fig. 29.)
214. Musculus cardiacus anterior lateralis. One pair—vThe fine
strands of this muscle arise on the anterior border of the anterolateral
cardiac plate (Cd Al) and go upward as a thin sheet of very loosely-
knit fibers to their attachment near the median line just above the
esophagus, close to that of the preceding muscle. (Fig. 29.)
215. Musculi circumoesophaget. Many.—Taken all together, these
numerous muscle fibers go to make up a band surrounding the esopha-
gus. Individually they are very small. (Fig. 30.)
216 a-n. Musculi pylorici a-n. Fourteen pairs—lIt is most con-
venient to list these numerous small muscles controlling the constriction
of the pylorus in tabular form, giving the ossicles between which each
muscle extends. The numbering of each individual muscle has been
purely arbitrary and without other significance than one of identi-
fication. (Fig. 30.)
a. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicle (X///) to anterior pleuropyloric
ossicle (X XI/1).
b. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicle (X/J//) to posterior mesopyloric os-
sicle (XV).
c. Middle supra-ampullary ossicle (X XJ) to posterior mesopyloric
ossicle (XV).
d. Middle supra-ampullary ossicle (X XJ) to uropyloric ossicle
CVE).
e. Ampulla (Amp) to uropyloric ossicle (XV J).
f. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicle (XXJ/) to middle pleuro-
pyloric ossicle (XXJV).
g. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicle (X X//) to uropyloric ossicle
(eer iy
h. Posterior supra-ampullary ossicle (XXJJ) to pyloric valve.
GPP):
1. Pre-ampullary ossicle (XVJII) to middle supra-ampullary os-
sicle (XXJ).
j- Middle supra-ampullary ossicle (X XJ) to ampulla (Amp).
k. Anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (X X///) to posterior mesopy-
loric ossicle (XV).
74 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOLE. 92
1. Anterior pleuropyloric ossicle (X XJII) to anterior mesopyloric
ossicle (XIV).
m. Ampulla (Amp) to antero-inferior pyloric ossicle (XVJI).
n. Lateral cardiopyloric ossicle (XJI/) to inferolateral cardiac os-
sicle (XJ).
ABBREVIATIONS USED ON THE FIGURES
a-b, primitive dorsoventral axis of
appendage.
A Cxpd, anterior part of coxopodite.
Add, tendon of adductor of mandible.
Flb, flabellum.
Flg, flagellum.
I, dorsal promotor muscle.
Iscpd, ischiopodite.
J, dorsal remotor.
A, ventral promotor.
Bnd, endite of basipodite. L, ventral remotor.
Bs-Iscpd, basi-ischiopodite. Mrpd, meropodite.
Bspd, basipodite. Palp, palp.
Cex, exite of coxopodite. P Cxpd, posterior part of coxopodite.
Cnd, endite of coxopodite. Post, posterior border.
Crpd, carpopodite. Prpd, propodite.
Cxapd, coxopodite. Prtpd, protopodite.
Decpd, dactylopodite. Ptg, paratergite.
Ant, anterior border.
Appd, appendage.
End, endite. Scg, scaphognathite.
Endpd, endopodite. St, statocyst.
Eppd, epipodite. Sin, sternum.
Ex, exite. T, tergum.
Expd, exopodite. Tn, telson.
REFERENCES
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Ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der Decapoden. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,
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35, PP. I15-142, pls. IO-II.
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Brooks, W. K.
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CaLMAN, W. T.
1896. On the genus Anaspides and its affinities with certain fossil Crustacea.
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Sir Ray Lankester. London.
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219-253, 4 pls.
1929. On the feeding mechanism of the syncarid Crustacea. Trans. Roy. Soc.
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CHILTON, C.
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DanlieL, R. J.
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Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. 42, pp. 5-41.
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Proc. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. 43, pp. 148-180.
1931. The abdominal muscular systems of Homarus vulgaris (L). and
Palinurus vulgaris (Latr.). Proc. Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol.
45, PP. 3-49, 2 pls.
1931. The abdominal muscular systems of the shore crab (Carcaenas
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Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. 45, pp. 50-56, 2 figs.
1931. Comparative study of the abdominal musculature in Malacostraca.
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appendages in the Arthropoda. A. Crustacea. pp. 1-176, 8 pls.
Copenhagen.
1930. Studies on Arthropoda. III. On the comparative morphology of the
appendages in the Arthropoda. B. Crustacea (supplement), Insecta,
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Elbe ube ele
1880. The crayfish. An‘introduction to the study of zoology. 371 pp., 8o figs.
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Jackson, H. G.
1928. The morphology of the isopod head. Part 2, The terrestrial isopods.
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1915. Das Nervensystem von Astacus fluviatilis (Potamobius astacus L.).
Ein Beitrag zur Morphologie der Dekapoden. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.,
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Netz, WILLY
1917. Das Skelett des Flusskrebses (Potamobius astacus Leach). Disserta-
tion. 104 pp., 38 figs. Marburg.
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1930. The cancroid crabs of America, of the families Euryalidae, Portunidae,
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ALONG Lede eae
1 ie * we" u >
my
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 10
RECENT DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN
BEDS IN THE NORTHWESTERN
UNITED STATES
BY
CHARLES ELMER RESSER
Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology,
U.S. National Museum
me tn
E-INCA
ewe ORS
<nckE ANo OY
q 9 >
(PUBLICATION 3284)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
NOVEMBER 6, 1934
THe Lord Waltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. 8. As
RECEND DISCOVERIES: OF ‘CAMBRIAN BEDS IN THE
NORTHWESTERN, UNITED STATES
By CHARLES ELMER RESSER
Curator, Division of Invertebrate Paleontology, U.S. National Museum
The lifelong studies of Dr. Charles D. Walcott on the stratigraphy
and paleontology of Cordilleran North America not only made this
a classic area for geologic research, but also established here the most
complete known sections of Cambrian strata. However, a considerable
area in which Cambrian strata seem to be wanting existed between the
definitely known outcrops of the Cambrian in Montana and in British
Columbia. Dr. Walcott’s further plans included field work in the
northern United States and southern Canada for the investigation of
this problem, but his death prevented the completion of the project.
Recently, several fortunate discoveries of Cambrian beds have been
made in northwestern United States which contribute to a better
understanding of the fundamental structure of the Rocky Mountain
region. To understand fully the significance of these recent discoveries
it is necessary to have in mind both the geographic distribution of the
concerned Cambrian outcrops, as well as the primary structural regions
of the Cordilleras, especially with respect to the location and direction
of geosynclines and basins at the beginning of Paleozoic sedimentation.
PREVIOUSLY KNOWN DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAMBRIAN
Hitherto, as a result of Walcott’s extensive studies, the Lower
Cambrian was known to extend from southern California northward
through the Great Basin as far as the Eureka District in central
Nevada and the vicinity of Salt Lake City in the Wasatch Range of
Utah. From these points northward, beds older than Middle Cam-
brian seemed to be lacking, not only in northern Utah, Idaho, and
Montana, but also for a considerable distance along the southern part
of the Canadian Rockies.
The Middle Cambrian, on the other hand, was known to extend
beyond the mentioned points in Nevada and Utah, throughout the
Wasatch and thence northward into the western side of the Teton
Range, in western Wyoming, and to crop out widely about the head-
waters of the streams forming the Missouri River in western Mon-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No.10
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
tana. North of the Belt Mountains or of the latitude passing through
Helena, Mont., no Middle Cambrian was known in the vast expanse
of Beltian sediments extending far north into Canada, except that
discovered in 1905 by Walcott in a limited area near Ovando, Lewis
and Clark County, north of Helena. In the Canadian Rockies Walcott
traced similar Middle Cambrian beds southward at least as far as
Elk Pass on the Continental Divide. Thus it is evident that the gap
between the nearest exposures of Middle Cambrian in the Rockies of
the United States and of Canada was much smaller—by the distance
between Salt Lake City and the Ovando area—than that between the
nearest exposures of the Lower Cambrian.
Finally, the Upper Cambrian was known to extend rather generally
throughout the southern Rocky Mountains, as defined below, where
it constitutes the sole Cambrian deposition. These strata are at present
best designated as the Deadwood series. In Montana the upper portion
of Peale’s Gallatin limestone series is of about the same age as the
Cambrian in the Southern Rockies, and in Canada beds corresponding
rather closely to the Gallatin series and younger strata are well de-
veloped. However, both in Montana and in Canada the Upper Cam-
brian has a more restricted distribution than the Middle Cambrian
and does not exactly coincide with it. Thus, earlier observations
indicated that Cambrian outcrops were confined to the Rocky Mountain
system proper—as defined in the following paragraphs—and that in
it an extensive area existed in western Montana, northern Idaho, and
the southern parts of Alberta and British Columbia, in which Cambrian
strata were apparently lacking.
PRIMARY STRUCTURAL UNITS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
Before the recent discoveries are described, a few words concern-
ing the fundamental structure of this part of the Cordilleran region
will be helpful. In the light of early Paleozoic history it is desirable
to depart somewhat from the regional classification in vogue, which
is based primarily on present topography and is, therefore, a delimi-
tation of physiographic rather than of structural provinces. The
structural provinces, as here outlined, take account of the persistently
positive and negative elements, and amounts of total and differential
movement, or, in short, the geographic conditions during the initiation
of the Cambrian or of other initial early Paleozoic periods, in so far
as they are determinable.
Southern Rocky Mountains —According to conditions at the begin-
ning of Paleozoic time, which persisted throughout that era, this
NO. IO DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS——-RESSER iS
structural province is regarded as including the Southern and Middle
Rockies as recently defined by Fenneman. This includes the ranges
in central Colorado, Wyoming, and south-central Montana, but ex-
cludes the Wasatch and western Wyoming ranges.
Although the Southern Rockies are in line of strike with the ranges
to the northwest, nevertheless they have a wholly different geologic
history and consequent structure, consisting essentially of a Cryp-
tozoic * core fringed with belts of Paleozoic rocks. We may take the
Big Horn Range as a typical example of the Southern Rockies. This
range consists of an elongate dome of peneplaned Cryptozoic rocks,
the edges of which are surrounded by a band of early Upper Cambrian
overlain by younger strata. It is certain that the overlapping edges of
the Upper Cambrian strata have been stripped back along the pene-
planed surface on which they rest, but they appear never to have
covered altogether the higher, central portions of the dome. Owing to
the positive nature of these domes, coupled with their stability through-
out long periods of time, it is not surprising that real geosynclines are
apparently absent from the Southern Rockies, and that, in consequence,
all sediments from Cambrian to Recent times are basin deposits laid
down in the same manner as the Tertiary beds of the present Big
Horn Basin.
The northern boundary of the Southern Rockies is naturally an
irregular line. Along the main strike the province terminates with the
Beartooth Mountains, northeast of the Yellowstone National Park.
However, the Gallatin and other similar Montana ranges to the west
of the Beartooth mass should be excluded, even though in their evident
stability and peneplaned cores they retain characteristics of the
Southern Rockies. Their Cambrian, or initial Paleozoic, strata clearly
belong to the northern subdivision, so that they represent the southern
shore line of that province. Eastward of the Beartooth mass the
northern boundary of the Southern Rockies extends far northward to
include the Little Rockies and Big Snowy Mountains of central
Montana, and to the east to embrace the Black Hills in South Dakota.
Applying the same criteria to the delimitation of the western
boundary of the Southern Rocky Mountains, it is necessary to exclude
the Wasatch, Teton, and intervening ranges from this province and
include them with the Great Basin, even though the Tetons and pos-
sibly the Salt River ranges partake somewhat of the structural nature
of the Southern Rockies. Cambrian and other Paleozoic strata in
* Term recently used by Schuchert and Dunbar, Textbook of Geology, 3rd ed.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1933.
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
these ranges were apparently deposited in a geosyncline, and the
contained faunas indicate their deposition in the seas covering the
Great Basin. In other words this situation would naturally be expected
if these ranges are the eastern margin of the Great Basin geosyncline.
The manner in which Cambrian distribution is related to the struc-
tural provinces is well shown in the Beartooth region. On the south
and east sides of this dome Upper Cambrian strata of the Deadwood
series rest directly on the peneplaned Cryptozoic, but on its north-
western flanks the older Middle Cambrian holds this relationship.
This situation extends the Middle Cambrian shore line, described by
Peale for the southern margin of the Gallatin Valley, a considerable
distance toward the east.
Northern Rocky Mountains —From the Beartooth Mountains in
southern Montana, immediately northeast of the Yellowstone National
Park, northward to the Yukon River in northern Canada, all ranges
of the eastern Cordilleran element may be grouped as the Northern
Rocky Mountains. Again, from the standpoint of Cambrian or early
Paleozoic history, this usage departs from that of some physiographers,
conforming more closely to that of Daly, who regards the Rockies as
confined, in an east-west direction, to the mountains between the
Great Plains on the east and the Rocky Mountain Trench on the west.
In contrast to conditions characterizing the Southern Rockies, the
northern subdivision consists essentially of great thicknesses of folded
and faulted sediments, evidently deposited in geosynclines. These
geosynclines were, of course, the result of prevailingly negative move-
ments, which allowed the accumulation of thicker, more continuous
sedimentary series than were possible in basins of the Southern
Rockies.
In the southern portion of the Northern Rockies, as stated above,
the Gallatin, Madison, Jefferson, and McCartney Ranges exhibit
Cryptozoic cores, on whose peneplaned surface Middle or Upper
Cambrian strata rest without intervening Beltian beds, in which re-
spect they assume characteristics of the Southern Rockies. However,
only a few miles north of the mentioned ranges Beltian strata lie
beneath the Cambrian, and continuing northward the Beltian at once
thickens rapidly, covering most of northwestern Montana and ex-
tending into Canada beyond the Watertown Lakes Park. It has been
estimated that these Beltian strata total fully 60,000 feet. For a long
time it was thought that this enormous thickness of sedimentary
deposits constituted the complete sedimentary record of the geosyn-
NO. IO DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS—-RESSER 5
cline, but the recent discoveries indicate the possible presence of at
least Middle Cambrian, as well as the previously known younger
Paleozoics.
RECENT DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS IN THE
ROCKY MOUNTAINS
It will be easier to understand the true significance of the following
finds if we take them up in the order of their discovery, which also
automatically places them in their proper provincial grouping.
Pend Oreille Lake—rThe first discovery extending the area of
known Cambrian outcrops into the supposed gap across the Beltian
area was made about 1920 by Dr. Edward Sampson, at that time a
member of the United States Geological Survey. He found a good
Cambrian section along the southern shores of Pend Oreille Lake in
northern Idaho. Here limestones and shales contain abundant Middle
Cambrian fossils, which recall both those of the Ovando region in
central Montana and also others in the Canadian Rockies, thus show-
ing that Cambrian seaways extended across the western as well as
the eastern portions of the supposedly barren Beltian area, where
Walcott’s studies in 1905 had shown the existence of Cambrian.
Extension of the Ovando area.—During recent years the Montana
State geologists have been studying the sedimentary beds of north-
western Montana, particularly with the view to unraveling the com-
plicated Beltian sedimentary record. This work greatly extended the
Cambrian, both geographically and stratigraphically, in the Ovando
region about the head of Sun River observed by Walcott in 1905.
Study of these data is now under way by Dr. C. F. Deiss of the State
University at Missoula, Mont.
South Kootenay Pass—The third significant discovery was made
by Dr. G. S. Hume, of the Canadian Geological Survey, during the
field season of 1932, when he collected what appear to be Middle
Cambrian fossils north of Red Deer River, in the vicinity of North
Kootenay Pass, southern Alberta. Here shales, with layers and lenses
of limestone, overlie about 100 feet of quartzites, which in turn rest
on the Beltian with an erosional unconformity between. The Middle
Cambrian is said to be overlain by Silurian strata in the southernmost
locality found, but a little farther north is directly succeeded by
Devonian. The Cambrian, as well as the other mentioned Paleozoic
beds, vary rather rapidly in thickness. This discovery reduces the
gap, as previously outlined, by many miles in a north-south direction,
as the Pend Oreille find did in the east-west direction.
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Beartooth Mountains—The recent work of the Princeton Uni-
versity group studying the geology of the Beartooth region has shown
the presence of Middle Cambrian on the northwestern quadrant of
the Beartooth Mountains. On the eastern and southern sides of this
uplift only the Southern Rocky Mountain Upper Cambrian series is
present, but west of a gap where Cambrian is lacking, the presence
of northern Middle Cambrian apparently determines the southeastern
extent of the geosynclinal seas washing the margins of the more
stable lands which prevented their continuation southward through
Wyoming or the Southern Rockies.
All four new localities mentioned lie within the Rocky Mountains
proper, and in every respect their strata resemble those previously
determined by Walcott’s studies; consequently they serve merely to
close the gap between the previously known Cambrian areas in the
southern part of the Northern Rockies. In other wards, these dis-
coveries were to be expected as long as definite evidence was not at
hand that the known Middle Cambrian seaways had detoured around
this supposedly barren Beltian area. From our knowledge we may,
therefore, infer that a thin, probably discontinuous sheet of Middle
Cambrian once covered some of this Beltian area, but no evidence
exists pointing to the extension of younger Cambrian beds across the
area. Naturally, thin beds, lying on top of great masses folded and
faulted into the high ranges such as exist here at present, would suffer
severely from erosion, with the result that only patches of Cambrian
are left here and there in the bottoms of synclines. Nevertheless, it
is the opinion of all who have studied the region that the Middle
Cambrian sheet never extended all the way across the gap.
DISCOVERIES WEST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS
In contrast to the four finds described, another group located in
northeastern Washington contribute not so much toward closing the
gap, but have a much greater significance, since they occur west of the
Rocky Mountains in the strike of the Selkirk and Purcell systems.
Metaline Falls—Recently Washington State geologists searched
patiently the hitherto supposedly unfossiliferous metamorphosed rocks
in the eastern part of their State and were rewarded by finding fossils
which prove the presence of Paleozoic strata as was previously sus-
pected. Last winter, Mr. W. G. Bennett, a student of Washington
State College, found a shale containing good Middle Cambrian fos-
sils at Metaline Falls on the Pend Oreille or Clark Fork River in the
northeastern corner of the State, a few miles south of the international
NO. I0 DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS——RESSER 7
boundary. This shale occurs in the southward extension of Daly’s
Pend Oreille group or Summit series. This does not necessarily re-
move either series from the Beltian, but probably indicates conditions
similar to those described for the Rocky Mountain Beltian area north
of Helena, Mont. This shale is part of a limestone belt lying between
two mountain ranges of quartzite and schist. Besides the shale and
limestone, from which other Paleozoic faunas have been collected,
graptolitic argillites are present, which are now being studied by Dr.
Ruedemann. The Middle Cambrian fossils in the shales are Elrathia
aff. cordillerae, Pagetia cf. bootes, Kootenia sp., Olenoides, and
W estonia, all typical of the Stephen formation, very common in the
Rockies about Lake Louise, Alberta, and Field, British Columbia.
Localities near Colville—In 1931 C. C. Branson reported Kutor-
gina, a genus confined to the Lower Cambrian, from the Stevens
series on the Colville River, 6 miles north of Chewalah, Wash., a
locality about 40 miles southwest of Metaline Falls. The Stevens
series formerly was also regarded as Beltian in age, and as stated for
the Pend Oreille group, it probably is Beltian but was covered with
Cambrian beds, fragments of which remain in the infolded synclines.
A second Lower Cambrian locality was found by Mr. Bennett, who
sent in a single piece of limestone from the town of Colville. This
limestone contains fragments that appear to represent Wanneria, or
at least an olenellid trilobite, accompanied by several cups of Archae-
ocyathus. Taken together, these two discoveries unquestionably extend
the known range of Lower Cambrian strata far southwest of the most
southerly locality previously known in Canada. This was at Cranbrook
in southeastern British Columbia, and in or west of the Rocky
Mountain Trench, which is the western limiting feature for the Rocky
Mountain system. However, it is not clear whether we should regard
this occurrence as being in the Purcell or in the Rocky Mountain
systems. On the other hand, without doubt, the Washington Lower
Cambrian localities are west of the Purcell Trench and, therefore, in
the Selkirk system.
Kettle Falls—Finally, Mr. Bennett secured another piece of fos-
siliferous rock a few miles east of the Columbia River, at Kettle Falls,
10 miles west of Colville, containing a pocket in which occur silicified
fragments of Nisusia, Hyolithes, and a small, smooth trilobite sug-
gesting Agnostus. This small fauna could be either Lower or Middle
Cambrian, but seems to be the latter. This piece of rock is from an
argillaceous quartz conglomerate, lying between two masses of schis-
tose greenstone and grit. The conglomerate itself is much metamor-
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
phosed and sheared, and since the fossils are not distorted, it is likely
that originally they occurred in a limestone pebble forming a part of
the conglomerate. This, therefore, raises the question as to whether
the conglomerate is of Cambrian age or younger.
PRESENT CAMBRIAN DISTRIBUTION
With the data furnished by these recent discoveries, the general
picture of Cambrian distribution has been considerably altered, and
several generalizations become possible.
The Lower Cambrian is still unknown both throughout the Southern
Rockies and in the northern division as far north as the Bow Valley,
near Lake Louise, Alberta. This statement, of course, disregards the
possibility that the Cranbrook occurrence in the Rocky Mountain
Trench should be included with the Rocky Mountains and not placed
in the Selkirk system. On the other hand, the distribution of the
Lower Cambrian has been extended in the ranges west of the Rockies
a considerable distance farther south than it was formerly known
to occur.
Middle Cambrian distribution was expanded to a greater extent.
In the Rocky Mountain system it has reduced the Beltian gap to
several hundred miles, and to the west its range has been expanded
equally with that of the Lower Cambrian.
On the other hand, the Upper Cambrian received no unquestioned
additions, so that the Deadwood series still constitutes the sole record
in the Southern Rockies and retains approximately its previously
known distribution to the north.
DEDUCTIONS REGARDING CAMBRIAN SEAWAYS
When Lower Cambrian seas first penetrated the continent in western
North America, it appears to have been along a single great geosyn-
cline, the complete course of which was outlined by Philip King (1933).
Judging from Lower Cambrian occurrences, it seems that this geosyn-
cline developed by growing simultaneously from its two extremities.
Thus Lower Cambrian waters entered its southern portion, the Great
Basin geosyncline, and passed through what is now southern Cali-
fornia as far northward as central Nevada and Utah. From the north,
marine waters apparently came down from the Arctic to northeastern
Washington, leaving an unoccupied gap of several hundred miles,
because existing evidence does not indicate removal of Lower Cam-
brian here prior to deposition of the Middle Cambrian. It will be
noted that this interpretation considers the existence of but one geo-
NO. 10 DISCOVERIES OF CAMBRIAN BEDS——RESSER 9
syncline, which follows the trend of the northern Rockies south from
their northern extremity to Montana, where it swings westward
around the Southern Rocky Mountain region and thence continues
southwestward through the Great Basin, to enter the Pacific in southern
California. Or possibly one might consider this as two geosynclines
joined by a crossover in Montana ; but the faunas in both are the same.
By Middle Cambrian time floods apparently penetrated the entire
length of this long negative area. It is not to be understood that all
Middle Cambrian formations are thought to have covered the entire
width and length of the geosyncline, for they were evidently deposited
in relatively narrow, often parallel, and always very shallow troughs,
and differential movements within the larger depressed area must have
operated everywhere and during all time so that every formation was
a discontinuous sheet. (See Walcott, 1927.)
With the beginning of Upper Cambrian time, subsidence appears
to have affected the whole continent to such an extent that marine
waters were enabled not only to flood portions of this long geosyn-
cline, but also to extend themselves out across the smoothed surfaces
of interior portions of North America. Thus in the Southern Rocky
Mountains Cambrian seas were able to enter the basins between certain
positive elements which were then islands and are now the cores of
existing ranges. It seems that possibly all of the Cordilleran geo-
syncline was drained at the close of Middle Cambrian, because the
basal Upper Cambrian beds usually contain salt crystals, ripple marks,
and other shallow-water features. On the other hand, relatively soon
after the seas reached their maximum extent in lower Upper Cambrian,
emergence began west of the Mississippi Valley, so that the younger
members of the Cambrian are less and less widely distributed. With
no change in dip, the Mons, Garden City, Manitou, or equivalent
formations again spread widely both within and without the geosyn-
cline, overlapping the Cambrian beds of various ages but apparently
never reaching beyond them to rest directly on the Cryptozoic. In
other words, diastrophic movements creating early Paleozoic basins
or geosynclines were fully determined by early Upper Cambrian.
REFERENCES
Branson, C. G.
1931. New paleontologic evidence on the age of the metamorphic series of
northeastern Washington. Science, n.s., vol. 74, p. 70.
DAT eaReAt
1912. Geology of the North American Cordillera at the Forty-ninth Paral-
lel. Geol. Surv. Canada Mem. 38.
10 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Derss, CHARLES F.
1933. Paleozoic formations of northwestern Montana. Bur. Mines and Geol.,
Montana, Mem. no. 6, March.
Kinc, Puiip.
1933. An outline of the structural geology of the United States. Internat.
Geol. Congr., 16th sess., Guidebook 28, pl. 1.
PEADE ARG:
1893. The Paleozoic section in the vicinity of Three Forks, Montana. U.S.
Geol. Sury. Bull. 110.
Sampson, Epwarp.
1928. Geology and silver ore deposits of the Pend Oreille District, Idaho.
Idaho Bur. Mines and Geol., Pamphlet no. 31, December. (Mimeo-
graphed. )
Watcort, D. C.
1927. Pre-Devonian sedimentation in southern Canadian Rocky Mountains.
Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 75, no. 4, April 2.
Se
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
VOLUME 92, NUMBER 11
PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY IN RELA-
TION TO® WAVE LENGTH
(WitH Two PLATEs)
BY
EARL S. JOHNSTON
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(PUBLICATION 3285)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
DEGEMBER 6, 1934
“
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F ij
| |
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, ; , ;
The Bord Waltimore Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. S. A.
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PHOGOTROPIC SENSIMIVIGY IN RELATION TO
WAVE LENGTH
By EARL S. JOHNSTON
Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution
(WitH Two PLatTEs)
INTRODUCTION
Asymmetric growth resulting from unilateral stimulus has been des-
ignated tropism. Growth curvatures following unilateral illumination
are usually classified under the term phototropism. Different plants
respond in different degrees to light, but perhaps those most fre-
quently used in phototropic experiments are the sporangiophores of
Phycomyces and the coleoptiles of Avena. In such studies the in-
tensity, the wave length, and the duration of exposure to light each
acts as a contributing factor toward the final result. Just as there
appears to be a threshold of intensity for a given duration of light
exposure, so there are wave lengths which seem to exert no influence
on these growth responses, but with exposures to other wave lengths
the plants show distinct degrees of sensitivity. Not only do different
plants vary in their sensitivity, but separate portions of the same plant
respond differently. Recent work on growth substances indicates the
presence of factors other than light in this complex plant-response.
In the present paper the subject is limited, in the main, to the influ-
ence of radiation of different wave lengths on phototropism as shown
by the response of the coleoptiles of Avena sativa. The variety used
is Culberson, C.Il. no. 273, for which the author wishes to thank
Mr. T. Ray Stanton, of the United States Department of Agriculture.
All the light intensity measurements were made by Dr. E. D.
McAlister, to whom credit for that part of this work is given.
HISTORICAL, SURVEY
Many of the early experiments on phototropism have been reviewed
by Parr (1918) and the data classified under four general theories:
1. The “intensity” theory originating with De Candolle in 1832 and
adhered to in a more or less modified form by Wiesner, Darwin,
Engleman, Oltmanns, Yerkes, Loeb, and Davenport. 2. The ray-
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 11
2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. Q2
direction theory advanced by Sachs in 1876 and supported by the
experiments of Strasburger, Davenport, and Canon. 3. The wave-
length theory first investigated by Payer in 1842. 4. The energy
theory first mentioned by Miiller in 1872 in which the maximum
response of cress seedlings shifted in the spectrum for different
energy values of the wave lengths studied.
The basis for much of the recent quantitative work on phototropism
was laid by Blaauw (1909, 1914, 1915, 1919). His studies were
perhaps the first serious attempt made to interpret this growth re-
sponse in terms of modern physics. Plant responses were studied in
different spectral regions of sunlight and of the carbon are and com-
pared with the energy values calculated from Langley’s (1884) tables.
Blaauw found the most effective region of the carbon spectrum for
phototropic response of Avena seedlings to lie between 4660 and
4780 A, while the red and yellow regions were ineffective. According
to Blaauw (1914), the curvature of a plant resulting from unilateral
illumination is caused by the light-growth responses on the opposite
sides which are illuminated differently. The minimum amount of
radiation required to produce phototropic response was found to be
20 meter-candle-seconds. It also appears from his work that for
equal effects the product of light intensity and time of exposure is a
constant.
It is impossible to evaluate the effect of wave length in many of the
early phototropic experiments because of the lack of accurate physical
data. Some Io years after the early quantitative studies of Blaauw,
Parr (1918) made a study of the responses of Pilobolus to different
wave lengths and intensities of carefully measured artificial light.
The results of these quantitative studies are best summarized in her
own words:
(1) Pilobolus responds to the light of all the regions of the visible spectrum.
(2) The presentation time decreases gradually from red to violet. There is no
indication of intermediate maxima or minima. (3) The presentation time does
not vary in direct ratio with the measured value of the energy of the light in
the different regions of the spectrum. (4) The presentation time varies in
inverse ratio to the square roots of the wave frequency. (5) The product of the
square root of the frequency times the presentation time, decreases with the
decrease in the energy value of the spectral regions, and is an approximate con-
stant for a given light-source. (6) The spectral energy in its relation to the
presentation time may be expressed approximately in the Weber-Fechner formula,
if the wave-frequencies be made a function of the constant. (7) The relation
of the spectral energy to the presentation time may also be approximately
expressed in the Trondle formula, the wave-frequencies being made a function
of the constant.
NO} U2 PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON 3
About the same time Hurd (1919) showed wave-length effect on
young rhizoids by equalizing the intensity of the light coming through
a series of Wratten filters. Only the blue (4700 to 5200 A) and
violet (4000 to 4700 A) lights produced phototropism, negative in
direction. The other lights at the intensity of 1800 meter-candles had
no effect. However, with a greater intensity the green light (5200 to
5600 A) exerted a negative phototropic effect as well as the blue and
violet.
For the purpose of investigating the wave-length effects of radia-
tion on phototropic bending of young plants, Johnston (1926) con-
structed and described a simple plant photometer. The apparatus
consisted of a long box divided into three compartments. Each end
compartment contained an electric lamp which could be moved toward
or away from the light-filter window in the partition separating it
from the central or plant compartment. Plants which easily respond
in their directional growth to differences in light intensities were em-
ployed in place of the adjustable indicator or photometer screen in
the ordinary Bunsen photometer.
Sonne (1928-1929) determined the necessary amount of energy of
different wave lengths to produce a minimum phototropic response in
oats. The young plants were so placed that about 1 cm of their tips
were exposed at different distances from the light of a mono-
chromator for different exposure periods. The visible part of the
spectrum of a Hefner lamp was used as a standard of comparison.
Minimum response was obtained at 0.86 x 10° g. cal. per cm? in 1
second. The energy was measured by a thermo-element. The results
are summarized in table 1.
TABLE I.—Sonne’s Data showing Phototropic Sensitivity Determined from the
Amount of Energy Required to Produce a Minimum Response
in Oats
Wave length Absolute Phototropic
(A) energy effect
5700 588 0.17
5460 371 0.27
4360 0.028 3572
4050 0.06 1667
3660 0.10 1000
3130 0.66 152
3020 0.06 104
2800 253 44
2650 32 and 15? 7
2530 19 5
2400 ai I
4 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
It will be seen from this table that the amount of energy which
barely causes phototropic curvature varies with the wave length. The
yellow (5700 A) is about 600 times as intense as is the white light
necessary to bring about the same response, while the green (5460 A)
is approximately 400 times as intense, and the blue (4360 A) only
.03 as strong as the energy of his standard white light. The blue is
thus approximately 10,000 times as effective phototropically as the
green and 20,000 times that of the yellow. The violet (4050 A) is
also very effective but only about half that of the blue.
700
50
80
70
60
50
40
JO
20
A
(mt)
Fic. 1—Graphs from Bachmann and Bergann showing the sensitivity of Avena
sativa to wave lengths of light (continuous line) compared with their cor-
rected values of Blaauw (crosses), of Sonne (circles), and of Koningsberger
(horizontal lines).
Bergann (1930) made a very careful study of the effects of mono-
chromatic light on the growth and bending of Avena sativa as well as
the effects produced by a change of intensity and length of exposure.
Employing the method of placing the young plant between two oppos-
ing lights, he concludes that the regions other than the red and infra-
red produce corresponding growth reactions for suitable intensities.
In unilateral light equal bending is shown for corresponding intensi-
ties, first positive, then negative, and finally positive. Light curvatures
and light-growth reactions are parallel processes. The stronger the
light-growth reaction 1n a given wave-length region, the greater will
be the phototropic response. The seedlings “ choice”? in the com-
pensation experiments between two wave-length ranges is always that
which corresponds to the stronger growth reaction.
NOs IT PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—_-JOHNSTON 5
Bachmann and Bergann (1930) review the early work of Blaauw
and correct the energy values of his data for light absorbed by CuSO,
and water filter, surface reflections, and color filter in order to com-
pare his results with those obtained by Bergann. The results of Sonne
and Koningsberger are also corrected and compared. These data are
represented graphically in figure 1, in which the continuous line is
the sensitivity curve. The data from Blaauw’s work are indicated as
Relative efficiency
“600 620
360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 3580
Wave -length —mu
Fic. 2—Graphs from Castle showing the relative efficiencies of different wave
lengths in their stimulation on Phycomyces blakesleanus (horizontal lines), on
Phycomyces nitens from data of Blaauw (solid circles), and on Pilobolus calcu-
lated from data of Parr (open circles).
small crosses, those of Sonne as circles, and those of Koningsberger
as horizontal lines. The multiplier for Blaauw’s data in the short-
wave-length region is 2.5.
Irom this work it is concluded that there are two maxima in the
phototropic curve and that these correspond in general to the maxi-
mum light absorption regions of chromolipoids. It appears that the
phototropic curvatures in the different wave-length regions follow the
absorption of light by specific substances or their compounds in these
same regions.
The sensitivity of the sporangiophores of Phycomyces to light of
different wave lengths was investigated by Castle (1931). The
6 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
sporangiophores were placed between two light sources. The intensi-
ties were adjusted until the phototropic effects of the different
spectral regions were equal. At this point the efficiency of each region
was taken as proportional to its relative energy content. Wratten
filters were used in conjunction with a copper chloride filter. The most
sensitive region proved to be in the violet (4000-4300 A). In figure 2
Castle compares his results with those obtained by Blaauw and Parr.
It is pointed out that because of the presence of “accessory ”’ pig-
ments in these sporangiophores care must be taken in correlating these
results with those obtained from the absorption spectrum of the
photosensitive substance.
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS
The general method of studying the wave-length effects on photo-
tropism as described by Johnston (1926) was used by Johnston,
Brackett, and Hoover (1931) with an improved plant photometer for
evaluating four spectral regions in terms of plant response. The gen-
eral procedure was to place an oat seedling between two different and
oppositely placed lights, and after an interval observe the growth
curvature. If, for example, when the seedling was exposed to blue and
to green lights, a distinct bending was noted toward the blue side,
the lights were so adjusted as to increase the green or decrease
the blue intensity. Another seedling was then used and the process
repeated until a balance point was reached where the effect of one
light neutralized the effect of the other. When this balance point was
determined, a specially constructed thermocouple replaced the plant
and the relative light intensities were measured. From these experi-
ments it was found that no measurable phototropic response was
found for wave lengths longer than 6000 A (Wratten no. 24—red
filter), while a noticeable bending was found with the yellow filter
(Corning’s heat-resisting yellow—yellow shade), whose cut-off on
the short-wave-length side was 5200 A. The threshold for wave-
length influence was found to lie somewhere between 5200 and
6000 A. The effects of green and blue light (Wratten filters nos. 61
and 47 respectively) were progressively greater, being in round num-
bers 1,000 for the green and 30,000 for the blue times that of the
yellow.
These results justified a more elaborate and better controlled ex-
periment wherein narrower spectral regions could be investigated.
For this purpose Johnston (1931) used the specially constructed
monochromator illustrated in plate 1. Care was taken to eliminate
scattered light and to keep the conditions surrounding the coleoptile
NO? EL PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON 7.
symmetrical, with the exception of the wave-length region being
investigated. A double-walled glass cylinder with water between the
walls slowly rotated about the axis of the coleoptile. Two strips of
paper blackened on the inside and separated 1 cm from each other
were wrapped about the cylinder in order to shield all but a restricted
region at the tip of the coleoptile from the light. The cylinder was
encased in a light-proof box which contained two oppositely placed
side windows. Through one window, light was passed from the
monochromator, and through the other, light from the standard lamp.
The standard used was a 200-watt, 50-volt projection Mazda lamp
with the filaments in a plane. The standard lamp was enclosed in an
air-cooled brass housing with one small glass window opening toward
the plant. The light from the standard was passed through a number
6.0 Corning line filter, a heat-absorbing glass, and a water cell before
entering the rotating cylinder surrounding the plant. The number
6.0 Corning line filter transmitted wave lengths from about 4400 A
to 5800 A and from 7000 A to 12800 A of the light transmitted by the
water filter. The radiation intensity of the standard was 0.37 micro-
watts/cm? at a distance of 25 cm. This value, of course, varied with
different lamps and also with the same lamp as it aged. A photo-
graphic red lamp was used behind the small rear window of the plant
box for properly placing a coleoptile at the beginning of each expo-
sure. Previous experiments showed the coleoptile to be insensitive
for all practical purposes to this particular light. The monochromator
lamp was located outside the phototropic room, which was a small
room with no outside walls located in the west basement of the Smith-
sonian building. Very little daily temperature fluctuation occurred
in this room because of its ideal location.
Coleoptiles of oats, Avena sativa Culberson, were used in all these
experiments. The seeds were germinated at approximately 25° C.
between glass plates covered with moist filter paper. The plates were
so placed in moisture chambers that the seedlings grew vertically. A
careful selection of the seedlings was made for straightness when
they had attained a length of 2 to 4 cm. One was then transferred to
a small Erlenmeyer flask fitted with a cork stopper. It was supported
by means of a little cotton in a small hole of the stopper. The flask
was filled with distilled water so that the roots were entirely im-
mersed. With the cross hairs in a small telescope as a guide, the
seedling was adjusted to a vertical position within the glass cylinder
located between the two lights.
The general experimental procedure was to illuminate the coleoptile
on its two opposite sides, preferably the narrow edges, and after a
8 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
time interval to note the resulting growth curvature. If the light
adjustment was very much out of balance as indicated by the plant,
a bending similar to that shown in plate 2 occurred in 20 to 30 min-
utes. An adjustment was then made in the proper direction and the
used seedling discarded for a new one. As the balance point was
approached the exposure time necessarily increased. [inally on mov-
ing the standard light back and forth through a distance of 1 cm, the
plants could be made to curve repeatedly toward one light then toward
the other. The balance point was taken to be the midpoint between
these two positions. Care was always used not to expose the fresh
seedlings to any light but red in the preliminary handling. Priestley
(1926) has shown that light affects normal and etiolated shoots very
differently. The amount of light required to induce phototropic curva-
ture in normal light-grown shoots is greater, and must be continued
longer, than that required to bring a similar curvature in etiolated
shoots.
After a balance point had been determined and tested by using
several seedlings, a specially constructed thermocouple was inserted
into the glass cylinder occupied by the seedlings and the light intensi-
ties measured at the balance position. The junction of the thermo-
couple was made of a short length of fine bismuth wire and one of
bismuth-tin alloy, each about 25 microns in diameter. The alloy was
made up of 95 percent bismuth and 5 percent tin. Utmost care was
needed in measuring the light intensities since the plants were found
to be much more sensitive to the light than the best physical instru-
ments available. It should be remembered, however, that the seedling
integrates the effect of radiation over a relatively long period, while
the thermocouple responds in a few seconds.
The results of this experiment are presented in table 2. The ratio
of the intensity of the monochromator light to that of the standard
light is given in the third column for corresponding wave-length
ranges shown in the first column. Where filters were used in combina-
tion with the monochromator they are indicated in the second column.
No phototropic responses were obtained in any of the first six wave-
length ranges. The first quantitative measurements that could be
made were for the range 5040 to 5160 A. In the last column of the
table the relative phototropic effectiveness of the different wave-
length ranges is given. The ratio 29.10 was arbitrarily taken as
unity.
With unilateral illumination through the monochromator and a
number 77 Wratten filter in the region 5430 to 5670 A, bending oc-
NO. II PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON 9
curred in four hours. This indicated the approximate threshold region
of phototropism. In order to determine this point more accurately a
mercury arc in pyrex glass was substituted for the Mazda lamp of the
monochromator, and by passing this light through a number 77
Wratten filter, a seedling was unilaterally illuminated by the 5461
mercury line. In five such tests, each lasting from two to several
hours, two gave positive bending and three no bending. With reason-
TABLE 2.—Data from the Preliminary Experiment Showing Phototropic
Effectiveness of Restricted Regions of the Spectrum. That for
Wave-length Region 5040-5160 A is Taken as Unity
Filter ® Relative
Wave-length used with Light intensity ratio phototropic
range (A) monochromator (Monochromator/standard) effectiveness
7250-7700 W 88
6900-7300 W 88
6550-6950 CEkee2
6250-6600 GE
5940-6270 CEE 3
5670-5950 TR
5430-5670 Wa22s Glen sep
5200-5430 Wae77,
5040-5160 CEE 61 29.10 1.0
4940-5070 CIEE Oem 2.49 Tele
4810-4930 CILIR @pii 0.68 2.8
4070-4800 CEE 6.1 0.54 53.9
4550-4670 GEE 7 0.20 100.3
4450-4550 0.27” 107.8
4410-4500 0.34” 85.6
4360-4450 0.36” 80.8
4280-4360 0.41” 71.0
4210-4280 0.47 67.0
4130-4220 0.84 34.6
4970-4135 1.49 19.5
2 W, Wratten; CLF, Corning line filter; _TR, thermometer red. :
_» With the standard lamp at a fixed position from the plant, the intensity of monochromator
Beet wee varied by changing the resistance in its lamp circuit until a balance point was
obtained.
able certainty it can be concluded that under these particular experi-
mental conditions the threshold wave-length effect is at or very near
5461 A.
When the phototropic effectiveness is plotted against wave length,
a curve is obtained as shown in figure 3, with its maximum at about
wave length 4550 A. The horizontal lines represent the wave-length
ranges for which balance points were determined. Points where filters
were used in addition to the monochromator are represented as circles.
IO SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
There is a slight suggestion of two other maxima, one on each side
of the peak. It could not be determined from these data whether or
not these secondary maxima were real. Furthermore, certain condi-
tions existed during this preliminary experiment which make it impos-
sible to consider this sensitivity curve more than approximately cor-
rect. Although an attempt was made to burn the lamps at a constant
voltage, there was some fluctuation during the exposure of the seed-
no
aaa ion oe ey
= ostheo
naar
vl if ] ir >|
die es
“0
BSR See
SS
Neer
4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4900 5000 S100 5200 5300 5400
lic. 3.—Phototropic sensitivity curve of preliminary experiment (continuous
line). The ordinates are relative sensitivity values, the abscissae, wave lengths
in angstroms, and the horizontal bars indicate the wave-length ranges of the
balance points. Circles indicate points obtained with filters combined with the
monochromator. Points more accurately determined are indicated by crosses
and connected by dash lines.
lings and during the intensity measurements. Also, in some of the
work the standard lamp as well as its filter cell was cooled by tap
water. This resulted in an accumulation of iron on the glass surfaces
during the time required for determining the balance points. These
uncontrolled factors undoubtedly modified to some extent the char-
acter of light transmitted.
Because of the suggested secondary maximum on the longer-wave-
length side, three points on this side were again determined. This time
the lamps were connected to a battery of storage cells and the current
held more nearly constant. These three wave-length regions with the
NOW LT PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON II
corresponding phototropic effectiveness are given in table 3 and the
midpoint of each band plotted in figure 3. Here a distinct break in
ascent of the curve is shown.
TasLeE 3.—Data from the Second Experiment Showing Phototropic
Effectiveness in the Spectral Region Indicating the Presence
of a Double Maximum
Relative
Wave-length Light intensity ratio phototropic
range (A) (monochromator / standard) effectiveness
4460-4560 .29 100.3
4558-4662 -42 69.3
4685-4805 SAT 71.0
IMPROVED EXPERIMENTATION AND RESULTS
Another experiment was planned and carried out in which the
technic was further improved. A motor generator was installed
wherein the current used for the light sources was automatically con-
trolled. Both the monochromator lamp and the standard lamp were
connected in series and replaced at the same time when one burned out.
These lamps were the Mazda projection type rated at 200 watts, 50
volts, with an average life of 50 hours. They were burned at four
amperes. The water jacket around the standard lamp was removed
and the filter cooled by a thermosiphon method in which distilled
water was used. In the longer-wave-length regions the light from the
monochromator was passed through suitable glass filters to reduce
the effect of scattered light of shorter wave lengths affecting the seed-
lings. Unfortunately no filters which transmitted an adequate per-
centage of light were available for wave lengths of 4500 A or shorter
when used in connection with these projection lamps.
The data from this more accurately controlled experiment are pre-
sented in table 4 and shown graphically in figure 4. The maximum
phototropic effect ogcurs at 4400 A, a region about 150 A shorter
than the maximum found in the earlier experiment. A secondary
maximum occurs at approximately wave length 4750 A with the
intervening minimum at about 4575 A. From this double maximum
the sensitivity of Avena falls off rapidly to 5000 A on the long-wave-
length side, and to 4100 A on the short-wave-length side. It would
be interesting to determine if the limit of sensitivity in the case of
Avena continues to fall off on the short-wave-length end of the spec-
trum, as some previous work would indicate. At some future date
it may be possible to extend this curve into the violet and ultraviolet
regions.
I2 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining a satisfactory
balance point in the region of 4800 A. It was necessary to repeat
this part of the experiment several times. All other points gave con-
sistent data. It is possible that a slight shift of the seedling, one way
or the other from the center of the light beam, in this particular por-
tion of the spectrum was sufficient to account for the difficulty of
obtaining entirely satisfactory data. If this were true, then it would
indicate a considerable change in sensitivity over a range of only 100
angstroms at about wave length 4800 A.
TaBLe 4.—Data showing the Phototropic Effectiveness of Restricted Regions
of the Visible Spectrum. That for the Hg Line 4358 A
is taken as Unity
Filter @ Relative
Wave-length used with Light intensity ratio phototropic
range (A) monochromator (monochromator/standard) effectiveness
4945-5055 SG 9.37 .05
4873-4970 NC 17S .27
4760-4840 HRN .54 .89
4650-4750 SG 51 -94
4530-4620 SG .58 .83
4470-4545 -49 .98
4360-4440 .42 el
4270-4335 ‘ 48 1.00
4170-4230 65 74
4072-4125 1.18 41
« SG, Sextant green (1.94 mm); NC, Noviol “C” (4.15 mm); HRN, heat resistant Noviol
(3.04 mm).
As mentioned above, the light source for this experiment was the
Mazda projection lamp. Most of the regions investigated were
approximately 100 angstroms wide. For the five points on the short-
wave-length side no filters were used. It is believed that the amount
of scattered light coming through the optical system of the mono-
chromator in this end of the spectrum did not greatly change the
character of the sensitivity curve. It is much more important to elimi-
nate the scattered light at the long-wave points. However, it seemed
advisable to determine one or two points on the short-wave-length
side by using the lines of the mercury arc that fall in this particular
region. A mercury are in pyrex glass was set up in front of the
monochromator, and balance points were determined for lines 4047 A
and 4358 A. These points gave ratio values of 1.08 and 0.48 respec-
tively, and phototropic effectiveness values of 0.44 and 1.00. Both
points are indicated by crosses on the graph in figure 4. Because of
the purity of the 4358 A mercury line its value was taken as unity for
all the points given in table 4 and shown in figure 4.
NO. II PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—-JOHNSTON 13
The efficiency value for line 4358 A falls below the curve. This is to
be expected if the points on the curve adjacent to wave length 4358 A
contained scattered light of more phototropic effectiveness. The value
for the 4047 A line is above the curve. It may be noted that this
radiation was not exactly monochromatic, since an examination with
the spectroscope showed very faintly the presence of lines 4078 A
-50
.40
.30
-20
olen
4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4906 5000 5100 $200 5300 5400
Fic. 4.—Phototropic sensitivity curve. The ordinates are relative sensitivity
values, the abscissae, wave lengths in angstroms, and the horizontal bars indicate
the wave-length ranges of the balance points. Circles indicate points obtained
with filters combined with the monochromator. The crosses show where mercury
lines were used.
and 4358 A. This would make the apparent effectiveness of this line
(4047 A) greater than its actual effectiveness and hence raise it above
the curve. On the other hand, the curve itself is doubtless a little
higher than that which would have been obtained had it been possible
to use filters in addition to the monochromator for this region. It
may be possible that the phototropic sensitivity curve actually begins
to rise at this point, although there is no indication of this from the
other data obtained in this work. It is to be expected that in the
ultraviolet region the curve would rise, owing to injury of cells on the
proximal side of the seedling.
14 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
DISCUSSION
The use of the plant photometer in determining the sensitivity of
seedlings to light has in its favor the elimination of the operator’s
judgment at many points during the experiment. The plant itself is
used as a null point instrument. After a time interval the plant has
grown toward or away from the standard light. There is no need for
the operator to estimate the angle of curvature or the exact time at
which bending begins. Repeated experiments demonstrate that by
moving the standard lamp 0.5 cm toward or away from the plant
when located at a balance distance of approximately 25 cm, the curva-
ture of seedlings can be changed from one direction to the opposite.
It is interesting to note that repetition of balance points seldom
differed from each other by more than 5 percent. Very rarely was
an unorthodox seedling or an apparently nonsensitive seedling found.
One possible objection to this method might be raised. Each point
on the phototropic curve is not strictly comparable to the others. This
arises from the fact that the plant was at a fixed distance from the
monochromator. The intensity of the various wave lengths used was
different. The intensity of the standard light was changed to balance
that of the monochromator light. A better method perhaps would be
to maintain the standard light at a fixed intensity with respect to the
plant and change the monochromator light to balance the standard
light.
It is of interest to note that the maximum phototropic response
occurs at wave length 4400 A. This point lies midway between the
greatest absorption maxima of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll 6 re-
cently measured by Zscheile (1934) by an improved method. It is
also the position of one of the maxima found by Hoover (1934, data
unpublished) for carbon dioxide absorption by young wheat plants.
Since phototropic response is an index of growth retardation it would
at first appear that photosynthesis progresses best at a point in the spec-
trum where growth is least. Such is not the case, however, when the
other and somewhat greater maximum of carbon dioxide absorption
is considered. This occurs in the region of 6400 A. Here there is
no phototropic response and no retardation in growth.
The absence of any phototropic effect in the red and infrared, as
shown in these experiments as well as by those of other investigators,
and the sharp rise in the curve from about 5000 A into the blue, is
typical of an electronic photochemical reaction. The photochemical
nature of at least some of the underlying processes involved in photo-
tropism is also suggested by the part played by auxins.
NO. II PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—-JOHNSTON 15
Went and his school have shown that small pieces of agar and gela-
tine impregnated with this growth-promoting substance when placed
asymmetrically on decapitated coleoptiles bring about a growth
curvature with the small agar or gelatine block above the convex por-
tion of the coleoptile. The amount of bending can be influenced by
exposing the tips to light before impregnating the agar or gelatine
blocks. It would appear that light either prevents the formation of
the auxins or destroys their activity. Furthermore, Kogl (1933) and
Kogl, Haagen-Smit, and Erxleben (1933) show this growth-
promoting substance to be an unsaturated acid of the formula
C,sH 3205, which loses its growth-promoting activity on oxidation.
Recently Flint (1934) has called attention to a very interesting
relationship between light and the germination of lettuce seed. Cer-
tain varieties fail to germinate unless exposed while in a moist condi-
tion to a small amount of light. In his preliminary work it is shown
that light of wave lengths shorter than about 5200 A inhibits germina-
tion, while that longer than about 5200 A brings about changes result-
ing in germination. Furthermore, he has shown that normal or non-
light-sensitive seeds could be made light-sensitive by subjecting them
in a moist condition to strong blue light. These seeds would not
germinate until exposed to light of wave lengths longer than 5200 A.
All of this work is very suggestive of a common photochemically
responsive growth-promoting substance in these lettuce seeds and in
the coleoptiles of oats. Light in the visible spectrum of wave length
shorter than 5200 A exerts an inhibiting influence on the oat seedling.
Likewise this same wave-length region exerts a decided inhibiting
action on the germination of these lettuce seeds. However, an expo-
sure to light of longer wave length is necessary for the germination
of the light-sensitive seeds, even though the exposure is of as short a
duration as one minute. This stimulating effect of the red was not
noted in the phototropic experiments. All that can be said is that red
light did not exert an inhibiting action. The seedlings were handled in
red light, so that if a stimulating action were present, it could not be
detected, since no corresponding experiments were tried in total
darkness.
SUMMARY
The influence of radiation of different wave lengths on photo-
tropism is briefly reviewed and discussed.
Experiments are described in which the plant photometer was
used to determine the sensitivity of the coleoptile of Avena sativa
to the different wave-length regions of the visible spectrum.
16 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
The phototropic sensitivity curve rises sharply from 4100 A to a
maximum at 4400 A. It then drops off toa minimum at about 4575 A
and again rises to a secondary maximum in the region 4700 to 4800 A.
The fall is very rapid from this point to 5000 A, from where it tapers
off very gradually to the threshold on the long-wave-length side at
about 5461 A.
Phototropism, because of its photochemical nature, its relation to
auxins and the fact that it is a specific light-growth reaction, places
in the hands of the experimenter an important tool for investigating
the fundamental relationship of plant growth processes to light.
LITERATURE CITED
BACHMANN, FR., and BERGANN, FR.
1930. Uber die Werkigkeit von Strahlen verschiedener Wellenlange fur die
phototropische Reizung von Avena sativa. Planta, Arch. wiss. Bot.,
vol. 10, pp. 744-755.
BERGANN, FRIEDRICH.
1930. Untersuchungen iiber Lichtwachstum, Lichtkriimmug und Lichtabfall
bei Avena sativa mit Hilfe monochromatischen Lichtes. Planta,
Arch. wiss. Bot., vol. 10, pp. 666-743.
BLAAuw, A. H.
1909. Die Perzeption des Lichtes. Rec. Trav. bot. neerl., vol. 5, pp. 209-372.
1914. Licht und Wachstum. I. Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 6, pp. 641-703.
1915. Licht und Wachstum. II. Zeitschr. Bot., vol. 7, pp. 465-532.
1919. Licht und Wachstum. III. Die Erklarung des Phototropismus. Med.
Landbouwhoogeschool, Wageningen, vol. 15, pp. 89-204.
CASTEEEAUS:
1931. The phototropic sensitivity of Phycomyces as related to wave length.
Journ. Gen. Physiol., vol. 14, pp. 701-711.
Fruint, Lewis H.
1934. Light in relation to dormancy and germination in lettuce seed. Sci-
ence, vol. 80, pp. 38-40.
Hurp, ANNIE May.
1919. Some orienting effects of monochromatic lights of equal intensities on
fucus spores and rhizoids. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5, pp. 201-206.
JoHNsTON, Eart S.
1926. A plant photometer. Plant Physiol., vol. 1, pp. 89-90.
1931. A quantitative determination of phototropic response to wave length.
(Paper presented at meeting of the Amer. Soc. Plant Physiol.,
New Orleans, La., Dec. 29.)
JouNsToN, Eart S., Brackett, F. S., and Hoover, W. H.
1931. Relation of phototropism to the wave length of light. Plant Physiol.,
vol. 6, pp. 307-313.
Koc, Fritz.
1933. On plant growth hormones (auxin A and auxin B). Rep. British
Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 1933, pp. 600-609.
NOF TE PHOTOTROPIC SENSITIVITY—JOHNSTON WW,
Kooi, F., Haacen-Snit, A. J., and ErxLesen, H.
1933. Uber ein Phytohormon der Zellstreckung. Reindarstellung des Auxins
aus menschlichem Harn. Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem., vol. 214, pp.
241-261.
LANGLEY, S. P.
1884. Researches on solar heat and its absorption by the earth’s atmosphere.
U. S. War Dep., Prof. Papers Signal Service, no. 15, 242 pp.
Washington.
Parr, ROSALIE.
1918. The response of Pilobolus to light. Ann. Bot., vol. 32, pp. 177-205.
PriEstLeEy, J. H.
1926. Light and growth. III. An interpretation of phototropic growth curva-
tures. New Phytol., vol. 25, pp. 213-226.
SONNE, CARL.
1928-1929. Weitere Mitteilungen iiber die Abhangikeit der lichtbiologischen
Reactionen von der Wellenlinge des Lichts. Strahlentherapie, vol.
31, pp. 778-785.
ZSCHEILE, F. PAUL, JR.
1934. An impoved method for the purification of chlorophyll @ and b; quan-
titative measurement of their absorption spectra; evidence for the
existence of a third component of chlorophyll. Bot. Gaz., vol. 95,
PP. 529-562.
JHOSIM OL DNISNOH LHOIT
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SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOE OAs INO mi kalaene
PHOTOTROPIC CURVATURE OF AN OAT SEEDLING RESULTING
FROM A DIFFERENCE IN WAVE LENGTHS OF LIGHT ILLUMINATING
IT FROM OPPOSITE SIDES
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
fHodgkins Fund
REMARKABLE LIGHTNING
PHOTOGRAPHS
(WITH ONE PLATE)
BY
CG. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
GUT HsOON SY
aT OT Ces
Lai GTOT
(PUBLICATION 3287)
CITY OF WASHINGTON
PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
NOVEMBER 2, 1934
Tbe Lord Baltimore (Press
BALTIMORE, MD., U. & A.
Hodgkins Fund
REMARKABLE LIGHTNING PHOTOGRAPHS
By C. G. ABBOT
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
(With ONE PLATE)
About 30 years ago the Institution made grants from the Hodgkins
Fund to Alexander Larsen, of Chicago, to promote his studies of
lightning flashes, in which he made many photographs of lightning,
using a moving camera. Mr. Larsen contributed an illustrated paper
on this subject to the Appendix to the Smithsonian Report for 1905.”
He continued these experiments for several years after 1905, and in
the year 1908 sent to this Institution the two extraordinary photo-
graphs shown in plate 1, with the following notes:
The print marked no. 4 [pl. 1, fig. 1] is from a plate which was the fourth
one exposed on that occasion [May 29, 1908]. The camera at the time was moved
with a speed of 1 revolution in 5 seconds. The flash was a very bright one,
but it was so sudden and vivid that I did not notice anything peculiar about it.
The thunder accompanying it was very sharp and sudden, like the report from
acannon. The interval between lightning and thunder cannot be given accurately ;
it was less than a second, and probably more than half a second.
The picture of this flash is very remarkable; I have never seen any one
resembling it, and would prefer to call it a tubular flash on account of its
general shape and large diameter, measuring, as it does, over 3 mm at its widest
part, and about 2 mm at its narrowest; this great width cannot be accounted
for, to be caused by the movement of the camera; the uniformity of the width,
both in the vertical and horizontal portion of it, disproves that idea. It seems
to be a practically instantaneous flash, coming from a NW. direction in an almost
straight line at an angle of 32°, then bending suddenly, moving upward again,
bending in a SW. direction, moving downward, again turning eastward making
another bend, moving south slightly upward, then turning downward again.
If we assume that the nearest portion of this flash took place at a distance of
1,000 feet, which in my opinion would be a conservative estimate, we are con-
fronted by the remarkable fact that the diameter of this flash would be over
18 feet. (The angle of the lens is 43°.)
I am absolutely at a loss to account for this remarkable flash; it does not
appear to be a ribbon flash, which can be accounted for by the movement of the
lightning path, by air currents, so will have to defer my opinion until some
future time, and leave it to others who may be able to give a plausible explanation.
* Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1905, pp. 119-127, 6 pls., 1906.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS, VOL. 92, No. 12
bo
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS VOL. 92
To summarize, will say that the flash was apparently one which took place
between two clouds; it has the appearance of a very flexible tube of large
diameter, was almost instantaneous, and accompanied with a heavy downpour of
rain. The camera when the exposure was made was moved by hand, the camera
being placed on the stand described previously and was slanted upward at an
angle of 15°; the speed was 1 revolution in 5 seconds.
Temperature was 23° C. Barometer steady at 29.81 inches. Wind S.W. after-
wards changing W. and N.W., with intervals of calm.
On the same evening [July 17, 1908] a friend of mine, R. J. Spickerman,
residing at 2813 Lowe Ave., about 6 miles south from my place, secured a most
remarkable photograph of a flash [pl. 1, fig. 2], by means of a small 2} by 33”
film camera. A copy from the original photograph is enclosed, marked no. 9,
and also an enlargement of the same, marked no. 10. In describing how he
obtained the flash he said that he was sitting on the porch watching the beautiful
display, and having a camera, he thought that he would try his luck in photo-
graphing, having heard me speak of it several times.
He held the camera on his lap, pointing it toward the southeast, where the
most flashes were observed. He thought that he held the camera still, at the
time that he secured the flash, but the photograph shows that it must have moved.
It shows a meandering and very complicated flash, consisting of four distinct
and separate rushes,’ following one another in the same path, opened up by the
first discharge. It is almost incomprehensible how such a complicated flash can
follow all those curves and bends which the photograph shows. The only rea-
sonable explanation to my mind would be that the path of the flash was a partial
vacuum with very low resistance, which the beaded or striated appearance of
this flash also would tend to confirm. How this partial vacuum can be ac-
counted for is a difficult problem to solve. It is the first lightning photograph
which I have had the fortune of seeing that shows the path in broken lines, or
striated. It is this peculiarity which makes it especially interesting. I have only
on one occasion observed a vertical flash which showed the path broken up in
alternate light and dark divisions (it is about 4 years ago). I did not succeed
in getting a photograph of it.
It is possible that those beads or striae are of similar nature as those produced
in vacuum tubes, although they differ from them in this respect, that the striae
in a vacuum tube are narrow (as the name implies), whereas in the flash they
are wide. The word striae is really a poor term to use; beads would be more
appropriate, and I shall use it hereafter when speaking of them. On the original
photograph some of these beads are 1 mm long but the most of them about
4 mm. The dark spaces between them are on the average about + mm wide.
Now, saying that the angle of the lens is 36°, and the distance of the flash from
the camer